race
a grouping of humans with common features thought to be inherited genetically; ancestry; tribal or national origin.
racism
discrimination or prejudice on the grounds of race; belief in the superiority or inferiority of a person or group on the grounds of race. Racism can be conscious or unconscious and as with any form of discrimination can operate at individual, social, institutional, and systemic levels.
radical education
an approach which rejects traditional outlooks and attitudes and has as one of its aims thorough social and political reform (see progressivism).
randomised control trial
a standard research method involving the creation of two closely matching groups, for comparative purposes, only one of which is then subjected to the intervention which is being studied. It is a common approach in science but meets with problems and criticism when implemented in educational research, not least because of the difficulty of generalising from the unique circumstances of the trial.
rationale
a set of reasons or the logical basis for a course of action or a belief.
rationalism
(1) the practice or principle of basing opinions and actions on reason rather than on (religious) belief or emotions. (2) the philosophical theory that reason rather than experience is the foundation of certainty in knowledge.
rationality
the ability to think logically or sensibly; the state of being endowed with the capacity to reason.
raw score
in education, a test result or statistical data which has not been adjusted, or interpreted, in any way or had any contextual or mitigating factors taken into account.
reactionary
opposing social progress or reform.
readiness
in education, the state of being prepared to start school. Various tests and measures are in existence, designed to gauge the degree to which an individual will be able to cope in school and what support they may require.
realism
a term with broad application: in philosophy it generally refers to the belief that there is an objective world about which we can have objective knowledge. More commonly, it is a term used for an approach which accepts the world or situations as they are and judges the merits of ideas, plans, and actions on the extent to which they fit this viewpoint. Positively, this can be seen as a counter to the unfeasible and the idealistic but negatively it can be seen as being too resigned to things as they are and lacking the will to effect change or improvement.
realpolitik
practical politics: an approach which recognises issues of power and interest, rather than morals or ideals.
recidivism
the tendency to relapse, particularly into anti-social, harmful, or discredited behaviours or attitudes.
reciprocal reading
an approach designed to aid reading comprehension where teacher and reader,
or pairs/groups of readers, explore a text together through four main strategies of questioning,
clarifying, sequencing, and predicting.
record keeping
an important aspect of schooling which involves keeping track of various issues relating to learners such as attendance, achievements, and progress. The rise in public accountability has led to considerable growth in record keeping and many critics compare negatively the increased time taken to manage this with its perceived value.
reductionism
the practice of simplifying an activity, concept, or issue (to the point where the object of attention becomes distorted or misrepresented).
reflection
a process of careful consideration. It is seen as vital for teachers in respect of improving their own practice, and increasingly for learners in respect of improving their learning or study skills. It, therefore, needs to be conducted in informed way to be of real value (see pedagogy; praxis; metacognition).
reflexivity
consciousness of one’s own assumptions, role, impact. It is a key idea in research because it emphasises the role of the researcher in influencing both the research design and results.
reform
the action or process of changing a system, institution, or practice with the intention of improving it.
regression
returning to a previous (less advanced or developed) state; the opposite of progress. In statistics, regression analysis is a technique used for establishing the nature of the relationship between variables.
rehearsal
mental preparation, especially by repetition.
reification
the treatment of a concept or idea as a concrete thing. In Marxism, it also refers to the treatment of an individual as a commodity in terms of labour.
reinforcement
a responsive action designed to increase the likely recurrence of a behaviour. It is a term in common use in approaches to behaviour management or modification. It is a form of conditioning and associated with behaviourist theories of learning.
relationship
social connection; the way in which two or more people feel and behave towards each other. As teaching is a social activity, relationships and their nature are key factors in its efficacy.
relativism
the theory, relevant in a number of different spheres, that conceptions of truth and moral values are not absolute but vary with individuals and their environment, thus rejecting the idea of a single ‘truth’ or simple ‘right’ and ‘wrong’. The term covers a range of philosophical positions.
relevance
the state or property of being connected to one’s experience, current interests, or needs. It is a key concept in the educational theory of John Dewey (1859 – 1952) which argues that to be successful, teaching needs to focus on what the learner actually needs and wants, what is deemed relevant. Dewey saw learning as an evolutionary process whereby humans develop better ways of adapting to and improving their environment. So what is to be learned must be seen as having this connection if it is to be engaged with.
reliability
an important concept in research studies referring to the consistency or accuracy or dependability of a measuring instrument. A test with high reliability should produce the same results if repeated in the same conditions (see validity).
remedial
pertaining to action designed to address some difficulty or lack of progress in learning. It is most often used in the context of children with specific learning difficulties.
remediation
any action or course of action designed to rectify some difficulty or lack of progress in learning.
replication
the repetition of an experiment or research study to check its validity or reliability; the extent to which research is judged to be repeatable.
reporting
giving a verbal or written statement, in education most usually in terms of assessing a learner’s progress, attainment, and achievements.
research
in education, systematic study and investigation undertaken to extend knowledge. Applied research involves using the results of research to affect practice. Much debate surrounds the nature and value of educational research as the nature of education is not readily amenable to the quantitative techniques of empirical science whereas qualitative research is sometimes viewed as limited, in terms of its generalisability.
residential
of a school, institution, programme, or course: providing or requiring accommodation.
resilience
the ability to recover readily from, or adjust easily to, adversity, misfortune, or setbacks of any
kind; buoyancy. It is viewed as being a key factor in success in education, particularly for
those from disadvanted backgrounds. The importance given to it has been criticised,
however, on the grounds that it seems to place the onus on the individual to adapt or cope,
rather than focusing on action to address the underlying disadvantage itself.
resources
in education, the stock or supply of materials (including staff) provided to support the effective achievement of various goals.
responsive planning
an approach to teaching where the teacher’s plans for the nature and sequence of activities is determined not in advance but by the actions of the learners, their interest as evident at the time (see contingent teaching).
restorative practice
an approach to behaviour management but also to personnel management generally which focuses on repairing relationships rather than on retribution or punishment in cases of misdemeanour or rule-breaking.
restricted code
a term in sociolinguistics which refers to a style of language marked by informal, predictable features and relying on contextual understanding and shared experience to convey meaning. It is contrasted with elaborated code.
revisionism
the practice of amending or countering previously held or established opinions or attitudes; the modification of socialist or Marxist beliefs, typically away from revolutionary principles.
rewards
any consequence a person experiences to their behaviour which tends to increase the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Used widely in education, they are not without problems, however. They may increase compliant superficial behaviour whereas the underlying understanding and commitment may be missing; people respond in different ways so some rewards may not work. Other consequences, not intended as rewards, may be seen as such: for example, sanctions may reward because of the attention value (see reinforcement).
rhetoric
the art of effective or persuasive speaking. Sometimes the term is used pejoratively where there is perceived gap between the words used and evident reality. For example political claims about education may be described as mere ‘rhetoric’ if they are not seen to be a fair representation of the real situation ( see spin).
right wing
descriptive of conservative or reactionary political views.
rights
benefits or other advantages to which an individual or group is entitled. There is a distinction between natural or human rights, to which all people are entitled, and civil rights to which people are entitled as citizens (of a particular state).
rigour
the quality of being extremely thorough and demanding. A term often used with approbation in evaluations of schools and their processes.
risk management
the process or procedures involved in assessing, and minimising or eliminating, the dangers – to assets, persons, and property - inherent in any aspect of an organization’s operation or proposed operations. It is most commonly referred to in education in relation to school trips, particularly of the outdoor adventure type, where there may be a risk of injury or even death to participants. The increased fear of litigation resulting from such cases has led to some professionals becoming reluctant to become involved in these activities.
rote learning
learning undertaken by habitual and mechanical repetition. It is generally viewed negatively as it does not promote understanding and is associated with draconian, authoritarian methods.
rules
in schooling, this usually refers to regulations governing expected standards of behaviour. In recent times, learners have been involved more in creating such rules – encouraging self-discipline and policy ownership – and rules have tended to be expressed in terms of behaviour expected, deemed to be more effective than those expressed in negative terms : “Do not…