early education
this term refers to the educational experiences of young children and may include learning experienced in family settings and through informal activities as well as that through planned provision.
early intervention
a term which also occurs in medical discourse, referring to a process of assessment and support afforded to (disadvantaged) young children to aid cognitive, social, and emotional development so that their progression is more in line with their peers
early years
a period of childhood which, dependent on the context and understanding used, may range from pre-birth to around the age of 8
ecological validity
in a research study, the extent to which the findings can be generalised beyond the particular environment and conditions of the original study.
economic rationalism
in its relevance for education, a theory that holds that tailoring the school system to meet the perceived needs of the business world will result in economic growth.
education
a complex term which refers to the process, whether planned or not, formal or not, by which humans develop, in ways deemed to be socially acceptable, in terms of their knowledge, understanding, skills, attitudes, and judgements. State schooling is aimed at providing education, but it may be developed elsewhere, or even in spite of schooling, as some critics suggest. It is certainly the case that some aspects of schooling might not be considered educational, and also certainly the case that not all education is provided by schooling.
educational psychology
a branch of psychology dealing with effective educational techniques and with psychological problems experienced in schools.
educational technology
the identification, development, organisation, or utilisation of educational resources. It is commonly used in a more limited sense to describe the use of ICT, equipment-oriented techniques or audiovisual aids in educational settings.
edumetric
used of approaches to assessment which focus on authentic tasks and acknowledge
cognitive complexity. Unlike psychometric approaches which emphasise differences
between learners on the normal curve, edumetric approaches focus on individual learning, on
within-individual growth.
effectiveness
the state of being successful in producing or achieving desired aims or results. It is a contested term in education because aims in education are the subject of debate and so what is effective from one perspective may not be from another.
efficiency
the state or quality of achieving aims with minimum waste or cost; being well-organised or competent.
egalitarianism
a belief in human equality and the desirability of political, economic, and social equality
ego
the self. In psychoanalysis it is the conscious part of the psyche that mediates between the person and the outside world (see id, superego).
elaborated code
a term in sociolinguistics, introduced by Basil Bernstein (1924-2000), which refers to a style of language marked by its formal, explicit, and complex features. It contrasts with restricted code. Because the education system makes much use of elaborated code, it is suggested that those who have difficulty in using elaborated code will struggle to cope generally.
e-learning
learning on-line or by e-mail.
elective
an optional course which students select from a number of choices. It is rarely central to a course of study but more likely to offer opportunities for specialism or to follow particular interests.
elementary schools
the term used in North America for primary schools. It was also used in the past in the UK for schools which covered the age range from 5 to 14, particularly in industrial areas. Elementary education was also a term used for primary education.
elitism
a belief that certain groups or individuals deserve favoured treatment, or practice which is aligned with such a belief. In education it is associated with the special treatment or higher status afforded to those deemed to be highly intelligent or academically successful. It is also associated with schools or institutions who draw or select entrants from a narrow social base usually reflecting high social status. The term is also used in policy analysis for an approach which restricts power over policy decisions to a small group. It is thus contrasted with pluralist approaches.
emancipation
liberation; the freeing from control, subjection, dependence, slavery. Emancipation is often viewed as goal or consequence of education: individually, in the sense that a person may extricate themselves, through education, from prior mental, social, or economic constraints; socially, in the sense that a group or class may achieve collective liberty or autonomy as a result of educational experiences ( see critical pedagogy).
emeritus
a retired person who retains the honorary title of their post, such as emeritus professor.
emotional and behavioural difficulties
a term used for a range of difficulties, conditions or disorders which may affect a learner’s educational prospects or development, whether cognitive, social, or affective.
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, assess and monitor one’s own and others’ emotions, including the ability to empathise, motivate, and influence. It features in the work of Howard Gardner (b. 1943) and has been popularised by Daniel Goleman (b.1946).
emotive
relating to emotion or feelings. It often refers to use of language which is not purely descriptive but tending to elicit or excite emotion (especially if used intentionally to influence unduly or unfairly).
empathy
fellow feeling; the power to understand another’s feelings by imagining one to be in that person’s situation. In child psychology, this phenomenon is referred to as ‘theory of mind’.
empiricism
the doctrine that knowledge derives from (sense) experience. An empirical approach, in research for example, would rely on, or favour, observation and experiment.
empowerment
the state of being invested with power, being enabled, becoming able. It is used particularly in political contexts involving minorities, oppressed groups, or discrimination, where it means a changing of status from weakness or passivity to action, influence and autonomy. The key principle is that power is internally driven and not gifted from an external source although external forces may be important in initiating the process of change.
enactive, iconic, and symbolic modes
terms from the work of Jerome Bruner (b.1915) on child development: the enactive stage is largely equivalent to Piaget’s sensori-motor stage; the iconic stage is where understanding is influenced more by visual and auditory development; and the symbolic stage where abstract thought becomes possible.
endowed school
a school set up for charitable purposes and endowed with funds (cash, shares or property) by its founders. Many were brought in to the state sector after the 1870s reforms.
engagement
an important term in education, referring to the (degree of) involvement, participation, and commitment of a learner. It is typically understood in three senses: behavioural, affective, and cognitive.
Enlightenment
a philosophical movement of the 18th century characterised by an emphasis on human reason and science rather than on tradition and beliefs. This rationalism had a considerable influence in politics, economics, and religion ( see modernity).
enquiry learning
a learner-centred approach that emphasises higher order thinking skills, including analysis, problem solving, discovery and creative activities, both in the classroom and the community. Most importantly, in enquiry learning learners are responsible for processing the data they are working with in order to reach their own conclusions.
enterprise
initiative and resourcefulness. It is also the term used for school activities and learning related to business, especially of an entrepreneurial sort.
entitlement
a guarantee or legal right. In education, it may refer to certain aspects of the curriculum or to learning support, for example, to which a learner may be entitled.
entity
an entity theory of intelligence assumes intelligence to be fixed. It is an especially damaging view for struggling learners to hold.
entrepreneurialism
the promotion, or belief in the value, of entrepreneurial activity – individuals setting up businesses (often based on innovative or original ideas), with some degree of risk.
episteme
a term from the work of Michel Foucault (1926-1984) for the underlying structure of a discourse, the fundamental concepts which underlie, and delimit, all thinking at a particular historical period.
epistemology
the philosophical study of the origin, limits, and nature of human knowledge; the study of truth, and what can be known.
equal opportunities
the right to be treated without discrimination, especially on the grounds of race, gender, sexuality, age, or ethnic origin.
equality
the state of being the same in some sense such as in quantity, quality, value, or status. In education, it often refers to the sense of fair treatment, or that each learner receives an equal amount or quality of teaching or other input. The school system, however much it endeavours to provide equality, is surrounded by inequality as learners bring unequal experiences and abilities to school, and have unequal contextual experiences in social, emotional, cultural, and economic terms during their school years, thus contributing to unequal educational outcomes.
equilibration
the process or act of achieving or maintaining balance. In the work of Piaget (1896-1980), it refers to the process of adaptation by which a child achieves a meaningful fit between existing knowledge and understanding and new experiences (see accommodation, assimilation).
equilibrium
in the work of Piaget (1896-1980), a state of cognitive balance where the developing mind achieves meaningful understanding of experience.
eristic
pertaining to logical disputation; controversial
essentialism
in education, the belief that certain traditional concepts, ideals, and skills are essential to society and should be taught to all. It does not hold that all that is taught should only be of this nature (see perennialism) but that there is a core which should be passed from generation to generation via the school system. In philosophy, it is a term, dating from the work of Aristotle, for a wide range of positions which hold that people, objects, or phenomena do have innate, real characteristics or properties and that these are not simply social, ideological or intellectual constructs.
establishment
the persons who have power over, are in control of, or administer, something; capitalised, it refers to the traditional, conservative ruling elite in society and its institutions (for example, the church, legal system)
ethics
moral principles, rules of conduct; the branch of philosophy dealing with human conduct, and related theories about what is right, wrong, good, and bad.
ethnic minority
a group, within a community, which has different national or cultural traditions or identity from the majority population.
ethnography
the scientific description of specific human societies or cultures. As a branch of educational research, it is marked by its concern to understand or present phenomena from the particular cultural or social perspectives of those being studied.
ethos
a common but ill-defined term for the characteristic spirit, or climate, of an institution, department or other category of division. It is a mix of attitudes, relationships, approach, and style. It was first made popular when identified as an important factor in schools to counteract the negative effects on attainment of socioeconomic disadvantage. It is now in more general use, related to the school effectiveness and improvement agenda.
etymology
the study of the original roots of words. It can give rise to a type of fallacy where the original meaning of a word is used in claims to reject or counter current usage, or to attempt to limit its application. An example would be if the fact that education comes from the Latin word ‘educare’ meaning ‘to lead out’ is then fallaciously used to attempt to limit current meanings to that sense, or to discount alternative usages of the word.
eugenics
the science of race ‘improvement’ involving controlled breeding to attempt to increase the likely occurrence of desired inherited characteristics. It is deeply unpopular and derided, being associated with Nazi and fascist ideology.
evaluation
assessment. The term is often used in education relating to judgements about the effectiveness of practice, policy, or about professional competence.
evidence
that which tends to prove or disprove something; grounds for belief or action; data which can be used to support decisions or courses of action.
evidence-based
in education, of practice or policy – founded on, or taking cognisance of, best available research.
examination
a (formal) test usually for the purposes of summative assessment.
excellence
the quality of being extremely good or of the highest standard. It can be attributed in norm-referenced, criterion-referenced, and ipsative senses.
exclusion
the process or fact of keeping someone or something out, or of denying access. In school terms, it mostly refers to the practice of refusing to allow a pupil to attend school for a period as a disciplinary sanction. Politically, social exclusion refers to a degree of deprivation which denies individuals and groups access to a good quality of life.
existentialism
a complex philosophical trend which emphasises each individual person as free and responsible for their own decisions and development. It challenges rationalist and empiricist views of humanity.
expectations
in education, beliefs that a learner will or should achieve some goal. Research evidence has been used to suggest that such beliefs can be powerful factors in influencing successful learning, and that low expectations can become a self-fulfilling prophecy.
experiential education
teaching and learning which involves a transactive process between teacher and learner, focused on direct experience. It covers a wide range of approaches from those of John Dewey (1859-1952), to outdoors education, active learning, and environmental education.
experiential learning
independent learning through individual reflection on, and meaning making from, direct experience.
explicit
clearly stated, expressed, detailed or shown; not merely implied or suggested (see implicit).
expressive learning
an approach which focuses on creativity and performance on the part of learners. Learners may communicate what they have learned through the expressive arts – music, drama, dance, for example, and be assessed in those terms.
extension
see core.
external
originating from, or conducted by a body, outside an educational institution. It may refer to such issues as assessment, inspection, or funding.
extracurricular
outside an institution’s regular programme or course of study. Certain sporting activities or choirs and orchestras which take place at lunchtime or after school would have been viewed as extracurricular (also known as co-curriculum).
extra-mural
a term used for university teaching or courses offered to students not in full-time study. In Latin, the words mean ‘beyond, or outside the walls’ so it also sometimes refers to study away from campus or an institution.
extrinsic
not inherent, but originating outside. In education it is most often used in relation to activity where the learner is motivated, or values the activity, because of something other than the activity itself – future reward, for example. The learner thus experiences extrinsic motivation or places extrinsic value on the activity (see intrinsic).