ability
a person’s current level of capacity in terms of certain physical or mental tasks. Learners are often grouped for teaching purposes by having their perceived ability levels taken into account.
able
used to describe a learner, based on perception of a pattern of quick and/or successful learning behaviour. It is often used loosely in a global sense, although ability may only be apparent in one specific aspect or area of learning.
absolutism
a moral theory which holds that there are certain moral rules which must always apply, regardless of circumstance. It is thus opposed to situationism and a number of other moral theories.
abstract
as an adjective it means theoretical; not concrete, related to ideas rather than physical objects. Young children struggle to understand abstract ideas and usually need some concrete example to help them make sense.
academic
relating to scholarly activities, especially those involving study within subject areas or disciplines.
academy
a term for a secondary school, most common in the independent sector. With ‘the’ definite article, it is also a term for the higher education community generally. In England, since 2000 a city academy is a secondary school, centrally funded but with sponsorship from business, faith, or voluntary groups, the aim being to improve standards in areas of disadvantage. The Academy was originally the name given to the school of Plato (427-347 BCE).
access course
a qualifying programme of study normally undertaken by learners who wish to commence a more advanced course but who do not yet have the required certification for that course. It is often aimed at adults returning to formal education.
accommodation
a term from the work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980), referring to a response to a new experience where the learner has to adjust, modify, their existing conceptions to make better sense of the new, and previous, experiences (see assimilation, schema).
accountability
a term introduced to the public sector from business management. In education it refers to the idea that the performance (in a variety of areas) of institutions, groups and individuals be judged according to measurable criteria. It is controversial partly because quite a number of educational aims are not easily quantifiable or measurable with the result that they are either only weakly covered by the accountability model or that other data, more susceptible to measurement, are perhaps given undue attention.
accreditation
the recognition and acceptance of the standards of an educational body or its courses by some system of external evaluation.
acculturation
the process of acquisition of the values and customs of the social group into which an individual enters. This may occur unconsciously, in schools for example through the workings of the hidden curriculum (see socialisation).
achievement
success, particularly where it represents a great personal accomplishment. Often wrongly conflated with attainment which refers to level of achievement and often also unhelpfully narrowed to success in terms of academic assessment. Currently, many educational systems are trying to broaden out the sense of achievement to take account of other areas of success in learners’ lives.
action plan
a systematic outline of the tasks and responsibilities involved in achieving an objective.
action research
a form of research generally undertaken by a practitioner ( for example, a teacher) where the focus is their own work and environment with the aim being to increase understanding and improve practice.
active learning
an approach which involves the learner doing something more than simply passively receiving what is taught. Cognitively, it may involve some form of mental processing aimed at an output of some sort, but more usually it refers to an actual practical activity where something is performed, made, or worked on by making use of, or creating, the new learning.
adaptation
both Jean Piaget (1896-1980) and John Dewey (1859-1952) stress learning as an adaptive process whereby the learner makes adjustments in response to interaction with the environment, physical and social. Learning enables one to proceed successfully as a result of such adaptation. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) disliked the term as he felt it lacked a sufficient sense of agency and he preferred to use the term ‘integrative’ to show the way in which the learner, when free, not only responds to, but is able to act upon, the environment.
adhocracy
a term form the work of Alvin Toffler (b. 1928) for an organisation with a fast-moving administrative and managerial style, which aims to be more flexible and reactive and to avoid the static routines of bureaucracy. ‘ad hoc’ is a Latin term meaning ‘to this’ so indicative of a temporary or specific activity or arrangement.
administration
the management and direction of an organisation: in education, it can refer to classroom, institutional and system levels.
adolescence
the period of human development between childhood and adulthood. It involves the reaching of puberty and roughly corresponds to the teenage years. The personal, social, and biological changes involved can make it a difficult transitional time for the individual.
adult education
courses often of an informal nature aimed at learners beyond the immediate school-leaver cohort. Some may be for interest or pleasure but others lead to qualifications. They can be offered in different models including extra-mural classes, distance learning, within the community, or as weekend and summer schools.
advance organiser
a term from the work of David Ausubel (b. 1918) for any device used at the beginning of a learning experience which aims to alert the learner to what is to follow or to prepare them to process new material more effectively.
affective
pertaining to the emotions, feelings, and attitudes. In recent times the significant role of the affective in learning situations and educational institutions generally has been the subject of increased attention.
affirmative action
a form of positive discrimination where extra resources and/or privileged treatment is afforded to selected minority or disadvantaged groups with the goal of enabling them to achieve educational parity with more dominant social groups.
agency
the ability to make choices and have the power to act upon one’s environment. A sense of agency is seen as important for learner motivation, and indeed for teacher morale.
aggregation
the practice, in assessment, of collating results from a number of disparate activities, according to some agreed weighting, to achieve a single overall assessment figure.
aims
statements of broad educational purposes or intentions. Objectives tends to refer to narrower, more specific goals in terms of what a learner may be able to do as a result. Some critics view this as too tied to behaviourist theory while others such as John Dewey warned of the danger that a rigid adherence to pre-set aims may foster a mechanical approach to teaching.
alienation
a term from Marxist philosophy referring to the feeling that people experience of being estranged from key aspects of their social existence. Examples would include a feeling of powerlessness within society or of being depersonalised within some large, faceless bureaucracy. In the educational world, some teenagers who find the school system, its processes and demands, to be out of line with their own lives and cultural identity, and to be beyond their power to influence, experience alienation as a result.
alignment
in education this is the extent to which the aims, assessment, and teaching approaches of a course of study all fit together. Constructive alignment means that teaching methods and the assessment system share common principles. For example, a course which aimed to produce learners capable of persuading others would need to be taught in a certain way and assessed appropriately: multiple-choice written test would not be in alignment in this case.
alternative education
a form of education different from that offered by the state system. It may refer to radical or progressive approaches but can also be used to cover particular arrangements for learners for whom state provision is deemed, or has proved, to be unsuitable.
alumni (pl.) / alumnus (sing.)
a Latin term used for the former pupils or graduate students of an educational institution. In the USA it includes schools but in Britain is normally reserved for university or college graduates.
analogy
a (parallel) comparison intended to illuminate an idea. For example the relationship between justice and the legal system is said to be a useful analogy of the relationship between education and schooling.
analysis
the identification and detailed examination of the constituent parts or elements of some phenomenon. It lies somewhere between description and critique.
analytic/synthetic
a distinction drawn from the work of Immanuel Kant: an analytic statement is one true by definition – ‘all bachelors are unmarried’ – whereas the truth of a synthetic statement requires confirmation by empirical fact – ‘grass is green’.
analytic phonics
a method of teaching reading which involves breaking down words to detect phonetic patterns and then into smaller parts to aid decoding (see synthetic phonics).
andragogy
a term, no longer in favour, used to refer to pedagogy in an adult learner context.
anomaly
an irregularity; an illogical instance within an otherwise set, regulated framework; a deviation from a rule.
anomie
a term from the work of sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) for a situation where
social regulation has broken down and norms governing behaviour are unclear, confused
or absent. He associated it particularly with periods of social disruption such as economic
depression. It has lately been used in relation to concerns about social exclusion or the
so-called underclass.
anthroposophy
the theory of the educational thinker Rudolph Steiner (1861-1925) which stresses human spirituality. It is concerned with the inner search for spiritual freedom and the study of spiritual knowledge arising from this search (see Steiner schools).
anti-social
of behaviour or attitudes which are opposed to prevailing social norms.
antithesis
a direct opposite, or contrasting proposition. The term is also used in the theory of the philosopher Georg Hegel (1770-1831) as part of his triad of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.
aphasia
a condition involving loss of speech, or the understanding of speech.
aporia (noun) / aporetic (adj.)
a teaching approach dating from ancient Greece which aims at promoting learning through posing problems, questions, or, properly, a dilemma.
a posteriori
referring to a statement which requires empirical evidence to be verified or falsified (see a priori, analytic, synthetic).
applied research
in education, systematic, investigative study which aims at providing evidence of practical relevance. It is distinguished from pure research (see action research).
appraisal
a personnel management term introduced to the public sector. In education it involves an individual undertaking a review of performance and professional development. This is normally done with a senior colleague. It is distinguished from assessment and evaluation but is often viewed by employees as similar.
apprenticeship
a formal contracted relationship between an employer and new employee whereby systematic training (for a particular occupation or trade) is guaranteed for a period of time usually under the supervision of an experienced worker. It is less common now in post-industrial Britain.
a priori
a term originating from the work of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) referring to any knowledge which is known to be true independently of experience. It contrasts with a posteriori which refers to knowledge confirmed by observation. Kant attempted to distinguish analytic a priori statements – true by reason of definition – from the synthetic a priori which are necessarily true statements but which are informative about experience, such as statements in mathematics or the statement ‘every event must have a cause’. Synthetic a priori statements are said to be never false in any logically possible world.
aptitude
an individual’s potential to acquire skills or knowledge. Although a prediction, it must be based on current perceived ability and so is prone to numerous conceptual problems, and to bias and inaccuracy.
arts
a term used for certain branches of study such as languages, literature, philosophy, history, as distinct from the sciences.
asocial
used loosely as a synonym for anti-social but properly distinguished by referring to behaviour and attitudes which take no account of others, as distinct from anti-social behaviour which is opposed to social norms or conventions; descriptive of a person who cannot interact effectively with other people.
Asperger’s syndrome
a pervasive developmental disorder, first identified by Austrian paediatrician Hans Asperger (1908-1980). It falls within the autistic spectrum and typically involves difficulties with social interaction, communication, and flexibility of thinking or imagination. There may also be sensory, motor and organisational difficulties.
assertive discipline
a popular approach to behaviour management based on a rigid system of rules, rewards, and consequences (sanctions) which are actively taught to students and consistently enforced. The ultimate goal is that students therefore come to choose to behave, as required. It has been subject to some criticism: for example, for being a purely behaviourist approach aimed at compliance (on the teacher’s terms), where behaviour is conditioned, rather than learned or rationally chosen.
assessment
any process or means aimed at identifying the knowledge, skills or attitudes of a learner.
assimilation
a term from the work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980), referring to the way in which a learner can make sense of new experiences by incorporating them into their existing conceptions (see accommodation, schema).
assignment
a learning activity required of a student, class, or cohort.
assumptions
what is taken for granted, accepted as true. In educational research it is particularly important that unwarranted assumptions do not affect the design of a study or the interpretation of evidence. In teaching, assumptions about learners can trigger self-fulfilling prophecies.
at risk
a term used particularly for children and young people whose personal circumstances are deemed to put them in a position where unwanted outcomes (however perceived) may be possible or likely. It is commonly used in reference to child protection issues.
atomistic
a term for an approach which breaks down a process or activity into its individual parts. It is often criticised for being overly mechanistic especially regarding social activities (such as teaching) or for failing to recognise the bigger, broader picture through excessive attention to constituent parts or minutiae.
attainment
measured ability, level of achievement of a learner ( in some subject area or skill).
attainment gap
a term which refers to the difference in academic attainment between learners from different social backgrounds. Empirical evidence for many years has pointed to this gulf between the academic attainment of those from middle-class backgrounds and those learners from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds. Politicians with a commitment to social justice see this as a problem to be addressed and are held to account for failing to do so effectively.
attendance
the act, or frequency, of being present in a formal educational setting. As attendance at school is compulsory for certain age groups, and as a set level of attendance sometimes is a requirement for certain courses, accurate details require to be kept (see truancy).
attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a range of problem behaviours associated with short attention span. These may include impulsiveness, restlessness, inattentiveness, and exaggerated physical activity.
attitude
a person’s tendency to feel about certain people or situations in a particular way. The development of ‘positive’ attitudes in relevant areas is seen as important for effective learning.
attrition
a term used to refer to the phenomenon of pupils or students not completing a course for various reasons. Attrition rates normally refer in percentage terms to the number who have withdrawn from or not completed a particular course of study.
audit
a review of an organisation’s operations in order to assess efficiency and effectiveness. Now used more generally of any similar evaluation at any level.
aural
pertaining to hearing. An aural test would be where listening was the medium as opposed to written or visual material.
authentic
describing an activity or assessment procedure which involves students demonstrating their learning or skills in real-life situations or in tackling real-world problems. For example, the task of designing a poster publicising an event would be authentic if it was intended to be used in relation to a real, rather than imaginary, occasion with which the student was involved.
authoritarian
describing an approach in education where the learner is largely excluded from decision-making or negotiation. The teacher, or equivalent, makes all the decisions in an autocratic, dictatorial way. It can also refer to a managerial style in the same vein.
authority
a term with numerous meanings. In education, it can refer to the power or right to make decisions and issue instructions and commands such as that vested in a local authority or in a post such as that of headteacher. It can also refer to an accepted, or expert, source cited in support of some viewpoint or opinion.
autism
a condition, now recognised as encompassing a wide spectrum, which typically involves difficulties in communicating with others and in dealing with new experiences. Causes are unknown but much research currently centres around understanding it better and developing ways to support the education of learners with autism.
autonomy
freedom to make own decisions and exercise informed choice. It can refer to one of the fundamental aims of human education but in educational settings it can often refer to the extent to which a teacher, or equivalent, is able to exercise their own professional judgement, free of central direction or prescription.
axiom
a tenet, ‘law’, or established principle.
backwardness
a term no longer used for (significantly) below average performance in some approved global measure of scholastic aptitude or attainment. Terms such as ‘low ability’ are used in much the same way currently.
backwash
a negative effect that assessment may have on teaching and learning. For the teacher it manifests itself in ‘teaching to the test’. For the learner it may involve solely concentrating on what the test will cover, either in terms of content or skills, to the exclusion of all else. Constructive alignment is a concept designed, in part, to counteract such an effect.
bad faith
a concept from the work of Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) which refers to a particular kind of self-deception whereby the individual denies their own freedom, or their capacity to make a free choice or to change.
balance
a key term in curriculum planning if the aim is to ensure that the constituent elements of the curriculum are given due weighting. However, without knowledge of a learner’s activities beyond the formal educational setting, such a concept remains merely hypothetical or partial.
banding
broad banding is an approach to grouping learners where perceived ability is not the only criterion used, although it may be the most significant. Other factors in constructing groups may be influential such as gender, racial, and ethnic balance as well as the perceived motivation, effort, and behaviour of the learners involved (see mixed ability, setting, streaming).
bank
in education it normally refers to any store of material or information such as teaching or assessment resources.
banking model
a pejorative term from the work of Paulo Freire (1921-1997) referring to instructivist views of teaching where knowledge or ‘learning’ is simply deposited in passive, receptive learners.
baseline assessment
this usually refers to the assessment of children when they first enter primary school. It is used to provide information about levels of readiness for learning, to identify pupils who may experience difficulties in school, and to provide a baseline against which future progress can be measured. In this last sense, the term can be used generally to refer to any assessment designed to establish performance prior to engaging in some learning activity, experience, course, or programme.
basics
that which is deemed to be the fundamental elements of a curriculum, such as the three Rs of reading, writing, and arithmetic.
begging the question
a fallacy in which one already assumes what is still to be proved. The phrase is often used wrongly in the sense of raising or triggering a question.
behaviour management
a term used to refer to the approaches systematically used by teachers to control and shape learners’ behaviour. It is mostly associated with establishing an effective environment for learning but, because of some of the social expectations of schooling, teachers, especially in the early years, are expected to teach behaviour in the sense of enabling and supporting children to act in socially accepted ways. It is a term seen as more appropriate than discipline, but recently it has also been questioned because of its association with dubious social practices such as conditioning, and manipulation.
behaviour modification
in education, an approach to changing the perceived inappropriate behaviour of a learner principally through a process of reinforcement. It is thus an approach informed by behaviourism.
behaviourism
a generic name for theories of learning which stress observable behavioural responses and do not deal with ‘unobservables’ such as mental states or motivation. Key theorists were John B. Watson (1878-1958), E. L.Thorndike (1874-1949), and B.F.Skinner (1904-1990) who practised in the early to middle years of the 20th century. Learning is understood as being a response to a stimulus which engenders that response. It was heavily influenced by experimentation with animals such as dogs, rats, and pigeons (see conditioning, stimulus-response).
bell-shaped curve
see normal distribution
benchmark
a term borrowed from surveying. In education it usually refers to something which is taken as a point of reference or comparison: for example schoolchildren’s attainment in some subject area at a particular age or stage.
bias
a predisposition that prevents impartiality or which promotes an unfair, limited, or prejudiced viewpoint. In a society, or education system, which purports to be multicultural and pluralist, it is deemed to be important that school practices, staff, and resources are audited to minimise the risk of bias especially in sensitive areas such as race, religion, politics, culture, gender, sexuality, disability, and ethnicity
Big Brother
a term from George Orwell’s novel 1984, referring to a system of government which is intrusively regulatory and controlling, often with menace attached. It is now used of any management approach which uses surveillance and staff monitoring to an excessive extent.
bilateral school
in England, a school which has both selective (grammar) and non-selective streams, taught independently.
bildung
a complex term from German thought which means at its simplest level 'education'. The sense
of the word, however, encompasses a sense of lifelong development in relation to personal,
cultural, and social maturation
bilingualism
the fact of being able to speak two languages, especially native or habitual languages. At one time, such a capacity was deemed to be a drawback for schoolchildren but is now believed to have broad educational benefits.
blended learning
approaches to learning where more than one approach is utilised, or where there are multiple methods employed. It is most commonly used nowadays to cover practice where traditional face-to-face sessions are integrated with technology-centred approaches such as e-learning or online resources or support. As can be seen, it is essentially focused on teaching, rather than learning per se, and the degree of ‘blending’ may also be highly variable.
Bloom’s taxonomy
a hierarchical system of classifying different learning objectives and skills, devised by Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999). It covers three domains: the affective, the psychomotor, and the cognitive, the last of which is most commonly referred to in educational contexts. This domain has six categories, ranging from the lower order skills such as remembering facts, to higher order skills such as synthesis and evaluation.
boarding school
a school where pupils are resident, living in school accommodation. It is almost entirely limited to the private sector.
bourgeois
middle class; often used in a pejorative sense for conventional, materialistic, even philistine values.
borderline
marginal; usually refers to assessment where the object of consideration either just meets or just misses the criteria in question.
brainstorming
a joint approach to the generation of ideas where participants are encouraged to contribute in a spontaneous way. It can be used in problem-solving tasks or in any form of creative activity.
breadth
a term used principally in curriculum theory where it refers to the extent to which a curriculum covers a wide range of different subjects or the extent to which one particular subject area is approached through examining disparate issues as opposed to a narrow focus on one aspect (see depth).
bright
an adjective in common use for a learner deemed to be particularly able in one or more subject areas.
buddy
a person who mentors or supports a younger or inexperienced colleague. In schools, it is a term often used for a system where older pupils help or befriend new arrivals or younger pupils in general.
bullying
descriptive of behaviour where strength, influence or status is used to intimidate or oppress others. It is most normally used of schoolchildren but is recognised as occurring more widely in the workplace, in society at large, and in the family.
bureaucracy
a pejorative term for a management system or organisation dominated by excessive rules, numerous officials, complicated procedures, and voluminous paperwork.
burgh schools
in Scotland, historically, schools maintained by a burgh, usually through the town corporation.
buzz session
a short period during a lecture or similar where students are asked to discuss an issue or generate ideas in small groups comprised of other students in the immediate vicinity of where they are seated.
campus
the self-contained grounds and buildings of an educational institution. A single institution, thus, could have several campuses.
canon
the conventionally-recognised standard works in a particular area of knowledge. It is a controversial area as what is deemed to comprise the canon can depend on cultural, social, and subjective bias. The term is also used for those works of a particular author which are recognised as genuine.
capability
like aptitude, this refers to an individual’s perceived potential in some area of academic, social, or physical activity. Because its application is necessarily based on a judgement, there are numerous dangers of bias and error.
capacity
the power to learn, improve, or achieve in some relevant area or sphere of human activity. Again, an individual’s perceived capacity is based on a judgement and so susceptible to all related problems ( see aptitude, capability, potential).
capitalism
belief in, or the fact of, an economic system based on private ownership, profit, wage labour, and free enterprise
capitation
the payment of money to an educational institution, the amount determined by the number of its pupils, students, or other relevant category of person. It is often called per capita funding.
care ethics
approaches to moral thinking which stress the importance of solidarity, community, and caring about those close to us as opposed to absolute universal standards. Originally, it was seen as a feminist alternative to what was viewed as male-dominated bias around issues of justice in morality. It has, however, also been criticised by some feminists who view it as perpetuating the image of the ‘softer’ female stereotype.
carousel
a teaching approach which has a number of different activities or ‘stations’ which individuals or groups visit and work on in sequence.
cascading
in teaching, an approach where learning involves information or ideas being successively passed on and shared by learners. In broader educational settings, it refers to any system of communication where information is passed from one level to the next. For example, it is often associated with top-down approaches to curriculum development initiatives or policy-making.
case study
research involving the analysis of the development of a person, group, initiative, or institution over a period of time.
catchment area
the geographical area from which a school’s pupils are drawn.
category mistake
a term introduced by the philosopher Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976) which refers to an error arising from referring to an object in terms appropriate only to something of a radically different kind. The error is to place something in a category to which it doesn’t belong. Ryle held that Descartes’ distinction between mind and body was just such a mistake, looking for some entity separate from the body called a ‘mind’.
central institutions
a term used in 20th century Scotland for a number of higher education colleges, rather similar to polytechnics, centrally funded by government, offering degree-level courses, usually in technical subjects. Many have since become universities in their own right, or merged with existing universities. Those remaining are now known as centrally-funded colleges.
centralisation
in any educational setting, the concentration of control under a single authority. It could refer to a system where educational control is exercised predominantly, or exclusively, at national, as opposed to local, government levels. It could also feature in an institution where there is little devolved decision-making and power rests in a single figure or a small management group.
chaining
an approach to teaching where a relevant skill or practice is broken down into constituent parts, each of which is then taught individually but linked to form a sequence. This lock-step approach is often influenced by behaviourist theories of learning.
charity school
a type of school in UK - predominantly English - history, set up by an individual or private body to provide basic education for the poor. They originated in the 18th century, many early ones established under the auspices of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. In Scotland the equivalent was the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge which ran around 200 schools until they were brought into the state sector in 1872.
child
a young human below the age of full physical development. A strict definition is controversial in education as it has an impact on many related issues such as rights, responsibility, autonomy, and choice.
child abuse
the physical, emotional, or sexual maltreatment of a young person.
child-centred
in education, giving priority to the interests and needs of children, so distinguished from content-led or teacher-centred approaches.
child development
the biological and psychological process of growth of a child from infancy to adolescence, including social, cognitive, and emotional development. It is the focus of countless rival theories, adherence to which affects considerably the educational provision deemed appropriate for the child.
child guidance
the treatment of, or service designed for, children deemed to have cognitive, emotional or behavioural problems. It now tends to be subsumed under the general title of the educational psychology service.
child protection
this refers to the safety and welfare of children and their protection from abuses of various sorts - physical, emotional, sexual. It is a matter covered by legislation and local authority guidelines: schools normally liaise with social services professionals in dealing with such matters. Concerns about the risks to children have led to measures to vet positively anyone who works with children.
choice
parental choice has been emphasised by politicians in recent decades. It is particularly stressed in the area of school choice: selecting to send offspring to private school, faith school, or to make placing requests to choose state school. It is not uncontroversial as it is thought to favour articulate, informed middle-class parents unduly, and to skew badly school composition in certain areas. The place of choice in affecting learner engagement and motivation has also been recognised to some extent with schools and curricula endeavouring to create options as far as they deem it possible (see agency).
circular
a common means for promoting government policy without recourse to legislation. A circular issued to education authorities or to schools does not have the force of law but can be very powerful in terms of elucidating policy and/or recommending action or practice.
citizenship
the rights, responsibilities, functions, privileges and duties of being a member of society. Concern in recent years at a perceived decline in its proper exercise has led to political expectations of schools to ‘teach’ citizenship and promote related characteristics and behaviours in their pupils. It is subject to a number of contested debates such as the extent to which a child is a citizen or merely a citizen ‘in the making’, about the balance between citizenship rights and citizenship responsibilities, and about teaching citizenship as a subject discipline or as a practice.
civil service
the collective term for all employees of government departments.
civil society
a term used to distinguish areas of social life covering the family, the economy, culture, and political interaction which are organised by and between individuals and groups outside direct state control. It is thought to be a useful term to identify important areas of life which cannot just be understood as subordinated to the workings of the state or the economy.
class
a system for the categorisation of people according to their perceived social or economic status. Terms include upper class, ruling class, middle class, working class (see social class).
class contact
a teacher’s direct, formal involvement with a group of pupils. It is a term most used in calculating a teacher’s contractual hours of employment, as most contracts will stipulate a maximum amount of time in this area.
class teaching
teaching of a whole class as opposed to a group, groups, or individual.
classical conditioning
a term from behaviourism for the process by which two stimuli are presented together until the reflex response to one stimulus occurs when the other is presented alone, thereby creating a conditioned or learned response. The most common example is that of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) whose dog learned to salivate at the sound of a bell, it having previously been sounded simultaneously with the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus of food (see conditioning; operant conditioning; reinforcement).
classroom management
a term often understood as being focused on the control of pupil behaviour but it also refers to such things as the organisation of resources, time, furniture, pupils, other staff, visual display, and administration.
climate
a term synonymous with ethos.
closed question
usually used in the context of a teacher’s oral interaction with learners where a single, ‘right’ answer is expected. It is viewed as being of little value and restrictive, especially when questioning is considered as an aid to learning rather than a test of learning. Even to test learning, however, a closed question lends itself to rote learning and is unlikely to probe understanding ( see open question; higher order thinking ).
cloze procedure
a reading comprehension exercise requiring the participant to supply appropriate words to fit gaps that have been created in a text.
coaching
a term, borrowed from business management and personal development theory and itself imported from sport, which has gained educational currency in recent years. It refers to the training of an individual or group, in a supportive but expert manner, to improve performance or ability. Its attraction is probably because it can fit both constructivist and behaviourist approaches to learning: on the one hand, it stresses the individual’s active role in responding to the coach’s input; on the other hand it is susceptible to a process of conditioned responses where the coach systematically promotes improvement through a series of sequenced actions each supported by relevant reinforcement.
co-curriculum
a modern term for a programme of extra-curricular activities which may be optional or compulsory.
co-education
the teaching of pupils of both sexes together in an educational setting.
cognitive
referring to the mind, intelligence, or mental processes.
cognitive constructivism
a form of constructivism which lays more emphasis on the mental processing involved in creating knowledge, rather than on the social aspects of learning.
cognitive development
the (natural) growth of human intelligence or mental ability. A key figure in its study is Jean Piaget (1896-1980) who was interested in the change in a person’s ability to learn from childhood to adulthood. He developed a theory to account for this process whereby a human acquires intelligence, capacity for increasingly complex thinking, and problem-solving ability, from infancy to adulthood (see abstract, accommodation, assimilation, concrete operational, equilibration, formal operational, preoperational, schema, sensori-motor).
cognitive dissonance
psychological tension created by holding contradictory thoughts, beliefs or attitudes particularly relating to a decision which has to be made, or in relation to current behaviour or practice.
coherence
consistency, logical interconnection. It is an important concept, applicable in a whole range of educational spheres such as ideology, theory, practice, and management.
collaboration
working together, jointly, as opposed to individually or competitively.
collaborative learning
an approach where learners work on a task together, dependent on and accountable to each other. Each learner contributes to, and benefits from others’ involvement in, the activity. It can be seen as aligned most obviously to social constructivist theory. While related to cooperative learning, it is distinguished by the fact there is a common task and a single group result. Cooperative learning can involve separate tasks and individual outcomes although the process may be marked by shared activity and mutual support.
colloquium
an academic conference or seminar.
commercialisation
the management of an organisation or activity in such a way as to maximise financial profits or the (re)structuring of an organisation or activity in such a way as to render it capable of generating profits.
commodification
in education, the attempt to turn social practices such as teaching and learning into products or goods, or the treatment of them as such. Instead of teaching being seen as involving dynamic and creative activity within a social setting, it becomes an inert object capable of being ‘delivered’.
common curriculum
in an education system or institution, the educational programme which all involved would be expected to follow. It is necessarily controversial since decisions on what is deemed suitable for all require choices to be made about what is judged appropriate or not, and such choices will clearly reflect different social, political, and cultural values. Also, while ostensibly offering equality – a common curriculum for all – it may entrench inequality since the particular views of any dominant social group are likely to shape and inform the curriculum design.
common sense
sound, practical judgement which is not based on specialised knowledge or training. While given status in ordinary language, what constitutes ‘common sense’ for any one social group or culture may actually involve prejudice, superstition or ignorance. Appeals to ‘common sense’ as the ultimate arbiter in any dispute, therefore, need to be treated cautiously.
communism
a political theory which favours the collective ownership of all property by the community, each individual contributing and receiving according to ability and need (see marxism).
communitarianism
a grouping of views which can be said to have the common thread of viewing the individual as beholden to the community. One example is in the view that an individual’s moral beliefs will be largely a matter of cultural inheritance. One political version is that the individual is subordinate to the collective authority of the community. Another theoretical version holds to a system of social organization based on small self-governing communities.
communities of practice
communities of practice are formed by people who engage in a process of collective learning in a shared domain of human endeavour. The focus is on the processes of social learning that occur when groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do, learn how to do it better as they interact regularly. While it can, and does, refer to all human environments, in education it is particularly used with regard to professional cooperation in various situations. The concept has been developed most prominently by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger (see also situated learning).
community
a complex term referring to any social group which shares one or more characteristics such as locality, culture, history, religion, occupation, interests, and which is perceived, or perceives itself, as distinct within wider society. State schools traditionally serve a local community – the catchment area - which may have within it many diverse social groups of its own.
community education
a form of educational provision, or educational activities, encouraging a wide involvement of people from all ages and often in sites beyond conventional schools or colleges – education in the community. There is a focus on education as a lifelong and continuing process. It is often conducted in tandem or though the medium of youth or other voluntary groups.
community of inquiry
a group involved in the examination of a topic of mutual interest through a collaborative process of dialogue. The term originates in work around philosophy with children but it is also seen as a fruitful method for professional and institutional development.
community school
an educational institution serving a local community. It is most commonly marked by being open to a broader public range of activities and usage than simply that for school pupils or students.
comparative education
the study of the similarities and differences between national education systems.
competence
the ability to do something successfully or efficiently in terms of the set criteria (see below).
competences
a competence model of professional education attempts to reduce practice to a pre-specifiable list of skills. It is an approach linked to efforts to import business models into the public sector and to render educational activity susceptible to quality management. (see reductionism, atomistic, mechanistic, commodification).
competency-based
see above
competition
a contest where there is usually a winner and loser(s). This is commonly manifested in education in arrangements aimed at an outcome where those with most ability and skill will succeed. It most often refers to sporting or academic attainment. While it may motivate some learners, competition risks alienating losers, especially when success is often linked to extraneous factors, beyond the power of participants to change, such as privilege and social status.
composite class
a class where pupils of different ages and at different stages are accommodated or taught together in the one teaching area. It is common in small, especially rural, schools.
comprehensive schooling
a system of schooling in which children of all abilities from a particular area attend the one school. The ideal of thus creating a genuine social mix in terms of school population has been compromised in the UK by the lack of mixed housing in most urban areas, a phenomenon which tends to make urban schools imbalanced in terms of social class, race, and ethnic identity.
conative
an adjective which refers to mental activity involving desire, purpose, or will.
concept
an abstract idea.
concept maps
in education, a type of diagram created to show various relationships between key ideas, usually in some subject area.
conceptual analysis
an approach to philosophical inquiry which examines the meaning of key terms and ideas. It is sometimes seen as a rather arid exercise when there grows a gap between this sort of analysis and actual language in use.
concrete
the opposite of abstract – existing in material or physical form.
concrete operational
one of the stages in the genetic epistemology of Jean Piaget (1896-1980) where logic begins to emerge and children can use basic systematic reasoning to solve problems (see formal operational; preoperational; sensori-motor).
conditional
describing a fact, situation, or practice which depends for its existence or occurrence on another thing or event; not necessary; qualified by reservations
conditioning
the act of training someone to behave in a certain way or to become accustomed to certain circumstances. It is associated with behaviourism and is widely regarded with suspicion because of its manipulative associations and the lack of attention paid to the active, conscious choices and autonomy of the learner (see classical conditioning; operant conditioning; reinforcement).
conductive education
an approach designed to enable learners with motor disorders to become more independent of artificial aids and participate actively in society.
conflict of interest
any situation where a decision made by someone in an official role may be, or come to be, to the benefit of the decision-maker. Normal procedure would be for these to be declared in advance and/or for the person involved to withdraw from the process
consensus theory
the view that social cohesion is essentially founded on a body of values which are in line with the views of all or most members of a particular society. This can be seen as supportive of, or in line with, a relativist moral position where morality is flexible, dependent on social context and social change. It is associated with the views of Emile Durkheim (1858–1917).
consequentialism
a term used for theories of morality which see good, bad, right, and wrong as determined by the consequences or outcomes of one’s action. Utilitarianism is an example of a consequentialist theory. It contrasts principally with deontological theories which view moral worth as independent of consequence and more related to such issues as will, intention, duty.
conservatism
an outlook which is resistant to, or cautious about, change and supportive of traditional values.
consistency
the quality or fact of being unchanging (over time) in terms of standards or nature. It is an important concept in behaviour management, assessment, or logic, for example.
consortium
most commonly used in education for the arrangement whereby a number of institutions form an association for mutual benefit, especially in terms of offering a wider choice of curricular subjects than each could do alone.
constructivism
a theory which regards learning as an active process where the learner constructs and internalises new concepts, ideas, and knowledge based on their present and past experiences. Learning is not a received object, but a created process. Two main forms of the theory are cognitive constructivism and social constructivism. More generally in the social sciences, it can also refers to a range of approaches which view elements thought to have objective reality as instead being social or cultural ‘constructs’.
consumerism
the view that ever-expanding consumption of goods is advantageous to the economy; a materialistic outlook which values the acquisition of goods and possessions.
contingent
dependent on something not yet certain, conditional; accidental; not necessary.
contingent teaching
an approach to teaching where the direction of the session is determined by learners’ responses so that the teacher adapts planning in the light of continuous monitoring of learners’ situation and needs (see also responsive planning).
continuous assessment
an ongoing process of identifying the knowledge, skills, or attitudes of a learner as opposed to one based on specific, discrete testing. It is often though to be a fairer system for those who react in abnormal ways to tests and also more reliable as it depends on a body of evidence rather than data from a single test. It can be problematic however as it is can lack robustness and its reliability can also be affected by subjective teacher impressions.
continuous professional development (CPD)
in education, the ongoing process whereby teachers and others upgrade and develop their professional knowledge and skills. Nowadays, it tends to refer to an organised system as opposed to being a voluntary or optional extra. Thus, while it may address issues of lifelong learning and personal development, it is also motivated by a political concern for accountability in the public sector generally, and specifically designed to counter the historical phenomenon that teachers, once qualified, had no requirement or incentive to ‘improve’ or keep up-to-date.
contracting-out
a form of privatisation where an element of a public organisation’s work is carried out by a private firm.
contractualism
an approach to social and moral theory which understands the state and the rule of law in terms of a reputed agreement between the individual and society, by which certain potential individual freedoms are sacrificed for the mutual benefits which flow from such a ‘contract’. It features in the work of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and informs the work of more modern theorists such as John Rawls. Its influence can be seen in approaches to behaviour management such as school students being involved in drawing up their own school and classroom rules, and more overtly in disciplinary approaches which involve individuals signing contracts regarding their future behaviour.
control
in education, this most usually refers to the organised, purposive management of learners and learning environments by a teacher. It is most often understood as the authoritative direction and ordering of pupil behaviour. Like discipline, it is a term which sits uneasily with modern conceptions of freedom and equality and rights. Critics of state education, often point to the role of schooling in social control.
control group
in a research study, the group with similar characteristics to the experimental group which is the subject of the intervention or experiment. The control group is used for comparative purposes ( see matching; randomised control trial).
convergent
usually used in relation to questioning or assessment where a single, unique answer is expected or acceptable (see divergent; closed question; open question).
cooperative learning
an approach which stresses learners helping each other or working together, perhaps in organised groups. It is aligned to social constructivist theories of learning. It is often used synonymously with collaborative learning but it can be distinguished in that cooperative learning may involve learners working on different tasks, but in a mutually supportive atmosphere.
cooperative teaching
an approach where teachers teach together. It can be structured in a number of different ways but is distinguished from team teaching in that it usually involves one teacher in a leading role and another, or others, in a supportive role. It is thought to be useful for learners with particular needs and for teacher development through sharing practice. Its effective use is highly dependent on time for joint planning.
core
the main, essential part of a curriculum or activity. It may often be mandatory with other elements then optional. Core + extension is a common, if limited, version of differentiation where only learners who have completed the core activity move on to other tasks. This approach needs to be planned and managed carefully to avoid problems. For example, if extension tasks are serious, learners may view it as punishment for success in the core, whereas if they are more fun, or involve pupil choice, learners who struggle with the core may see themselves as being punished by missing out. Similarly, for workload reasons, extension activities are often unmarked, leaving learners to question the value or point of what they have done.
corporal punishment
physical pain inflicted on pupils, usually as part of a discipline system. This has now been outlawed in most societies.
corporatism
in educational discourse, this normally refers to the (belief in the) role of large interest groups in controlling and shaping state education.
correlation
in education, a statistical term for the degree to which two or more entities show a tendency to vary together. The relationship may be a positive one ( as one rises/falls so does the other ) or a negative one ( as one rises, the other falls, and vice versa). For example, there may be a negative correlation found between levels of social deprivation and examination success and a positive correlation between levels of truancy and daytime juvenile crime. It is important to note that correlation does not necessarily establish a causal relationship: although x and y may vary together, one cannot therefore claim that x causes y or that y causes x. A common example given is the positive correlation of ice cream sales and the incidence of accidental deaths by drowning. One does not cause the other: instead, the key variable is sunny weather which affects both.
correspondence course
an early example of distance learning where learners could access a programme of study by postal service, with teaching materials and learners’ work being sent back and forth as completed.
correspondence theory
a philosophical theory which holds that the truth of a statement consists in it corresponding with the facts. Truth or falsity is determined by how accurately a statement describes or relates to the world. It is criticised on a number of counts, most commonly for its simplistic view of what constitutes ‘facts’ or ‘the world’, failing to deal with the contested nature of reality.
counselling
an area of professional education dealing with resolving conflict and emotional problems.
counter-intuitive
something that seems wrong, judging by instincts, gut feelings, or normal ways of thinking.
coursework
a set of a learner’s assessable material produced during a programme of study. Sometimes it is subjected to continuous assessment but more often to summative grading. It is valued as being more representative of a learner’s ability than a summative test would be, but is often criticised on grounds of validity and reliability as it is not always possible to be certain that the work is solely the student’s nor that the assessment, if internal, is not subjective.
cramming
a pejorative term for the intensive preparation for an examination over a short period of time, often involving mere memorisation of material. Schools or colleges in England who specialised in this approach, usually for entrance exams to universities, military colleges, or branches of the civil service, were known as cramming colleges, or crammers.
crash course
a brief intensive period of preparation, sometimes for an examination (see cramming) but also sometimes to provide a basic introduction to some topic or activity.
creaming
in education, a phenomenon involving the removal of those perceived to be the best pupils or students either from the state sector into the private sector, or within the state system from one school to another. It is criticised for affecting the balance of school composition and for its effects, positive or negative, on a school’s efforts to meet performance targets.
creationism
a belief that all things were created by a supreme being, God, in line with the account given in the Bible. It is usually opposed to the theory of evolution. A version of creationism – Intelligent Design – has been promoted as a scientific theory as opposed to a religious belief. It is controversial as schools and authorities disagree over its inclusion in the curriculum.
creativity
the ability to be original and imaginative, especially in an artistic domain. It has had a varied history within state education as its very novelty often clashes with the demands of a monolithic system. It has lately been elevated again, partly because of a prevailing view that it is can be linked to entrepreneurialism and economic advantage.
credentialism
an overemphasis on certificated educational success as a measure of personal value or worth. It is used pejoratively of employers or others who select, promote, and reward staff on the basis of their exam results, diplomas, degrees rather than on other (performative) criteria.
crisis management
in education, the administration of serious problems and difficulties – usually having arisen suddenly – which face an institution. The term is also used pejoratively of an institution where there is a lack of organisational stability or systems to cope with its situation, resulting in every eventuality being dealt with in emergency fashion.
criterion-referencing
used of an assessment system where there are set, objective standards against which performance is measured (see norm-referencing; ipsative ).
critical consciousness
a term from the work of Paulo Freire (1921-1997) which refers to the ability to perceive social, political, and economic oppression and to take action against it.
critical friend
a trusted person who provides a type of formative peer assessment critiquing the work and performance of a person or an organisation in a candid but supportive way. In education, it is often used in an intermediary, informal role, to prepare a person, group, or institution for a more formal system of assessment such as an inspection.
critical incident
an approach to (self) management where the details of a significant moment are analysed to help improve future performance. The technique may be used in behaviour management or personnel management, for example, where staff, individually or as a group, examine a described incident in a way to identify lessons to aid future action.
critical pedagogy
a teaching approach which attempts to help students achieve critical consciousness. It is explicitly aimed at aiding individuals to emancipate themselves, to strengthen democracy, to create a more egalitarian and just society, and thus to deploy education in a process of progressive social change. It is a term derived from the work of Paulo Freire (1921-1997).
critical realism
a philosophical view, in modern times associated with Roy Bhaskar (b.1944), which asserts that our knowledge of the world refers to the-way-things-really-are, but in an incomplete, provisional sense which will necessarily be revised as that knowledge develops. It therefore avoids the extreme postmodernist position that any interpretation of reality is as good as any other, avoids the idealist view that there is no external reality, but also avoids the naïve realist or positivist view that there is one single knowable truth ‘out there’.
critical theory
a social theory which aims not simply to understand or explain society but to critique and change it, with an emancipatory objective. It is associated with the Frankfurt school of social philosophers and the work of Jürgen Habermas (b.1929).
critique
a serious, probing examination, judgement or evaluation. It can be directed, for example, at a text, theory, policy, or practice.
cross-curricular
descriptive of any arrangement, group, or activity which involves more than one curriculum subject or area. It is often viewed in a positive light as it addresses the danger of compartmentalisation caused by a rigid curriculum structure, especially in secondary schools (see integrated education).
cross disciplinary
descriptive of any arrangement, group, or activity which includes more than one subject area or academic domain.
cross reference
a reference from one text or part of a text to another, or to a file, catalogue, etc. containing relating information.
cultural capital
a term from the work of Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002). In embodied form it is the dispositions, knowledge, skills, attitudes a person has which give them social advantage. For example, children from a middle class background tend to have the cultural capital that makes the educational system a more comfortable and familiar environment for them to succeed in more easily. In objectified form it refers to such things as books, and in institutionalised form it is most readily identified in the form of academic qualifications. Elsewhere Bourdieu refers to it as ‘informational capital’.
culture
in educational contexts, this term usually refers to the whole way of life - behaviours and beliefs - of a particular group, perhaps distinguished by race, class, age, nationality, ethnicity, orientation, etc. or a combination of these. Examples might be Gaelic culture, youth culture, working class culture, or black English teenage urban culture.
curriculum
loosely, a course of study in a school or college. More properly, it is defined as the overall rationale for, or essential principles and features of, an educational programme. An influential theorist, Ralph W. Tyler (1902-1994), outlined four key elements in curriculum: aims, objectives or purposes; content; methods or procedures; assessment. Curriculum is often used wrongly as synonymous with syllabus, which is in fact the term for curriculum content ( see also related terms such as formal curriculum, hidden curriculum, total curriculum).
customisation
in education, this most often refers to the process by which teaching materials and programmes are adapted to suit the needs of a particular learner or group of learners.
cut-off point
in an assessment marking scheme, the score which is the minimum accepted as a pass or for a specific grade.
cynicism
a negative outlook or disposition, distrusting the motives or integrity of others.
data
specific facts, statistics, or items of information; the material generated by a research project or study. Data does not ‘tell us’ anything: it is the interpretation of data that is crucial.
day release
a programme whereby individuals are allowed to spend a day (usually per week) studying, training, or working away from their normal environment. It is commonly used in business or commerce but is also a term used in prison and secure hospital contexts.
decentralised
descriptive of a system where power is redistributed or devolved away from a central authority. It can refer to arrangements in national or local government, or to an institution’s internal structures.
decluttering
removing excess material or demands; imposing order. In education, most often used for a process whereby curriculum content and assessment requirements are reduced and made more manageable and coherent.
deconstruction
a term originating in the work of Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) referring to the systematic analysis of texts to reveal how they ‘construct’ their object as if dealing with a definite ‘presence’ - an external reality or definite source of knowledge.
deduction
the drawing of a particular instance or truth by reference to a general rule or principle. In logic, the necessary conclusion from a premise: where it is impossible to assert the premise and deny the conclusion without contradicting oneself (see induction; syllogism).
deep learning
a term for a form of learning which involves a thorough understanding of the material, topic, as opposed to surface learning or rote learning.
deficit model
in education, any conceptualisation of a problem which describes it in terms of a deficiency or failure on behalf of a person or group as opposed to an institutional or systemic failure. For example, a deficit model would view disabled access as resting in the inability of the target group to enter a building as opposed to the failure of the building or those managing it to provide suitable entry for all. It is most common in discourse about pupil needs, learning, and behaviour.
delegation
in educational management, the action of entrusting tasks or responsibilities to others (usually junior colleagues). It is viewed as a more enlightened and efficient form of management but can be controversial when management retains financial reward for tasks and responsibilities which have thus now become the work of others or where key duties are entrusted to less qualified and capable staff.
democracy
a system of government where supreme power rests with the people; a way of organising an institution, system, group, or body according to the views of the majority of its members; an approach characterised by equal rights and fairness.
democratic teaching
an approach to classroom management where decisions about subject content and methods are negotiated and shared between teacher and learners.
demographics
statistical data relating to population or particular population groups. In education, it can refer, for example, to the national make-up of the school population and trends in birth-rate, or to the characteristics of a population local to an area or school.
denominational school
a school run according to the principles of a particular religious group. Properly it only refers to a branch of the Christian church but has become synonymous with faith schools in general.
deontology
in moral philosophy, any theory which takes duty or obligation as the basis of morality. It is often contrasted with utilitarianism which is based on teleology – the consequences of action.
deprivation
the damaging lack of material benefits, typically characterised by poverty, poor housing, bad health, and low wages or unemployment. The term is also used more broadly for any lack, such as emotional deprivation ( see disadvantage; socioeconomic).
depth
a metaphor used primarily in relation to study or learning characterised by thoroughness, intensity, and complexity (see deep learning; surface learning).
derived score
a test result which has been subject to some modification, perhaps related to norm-referencing, as opposed to the raw score.
deschooling
a term referring to a radical movement which flourished in the late 1960s early 1970s, and which argued that compulsory schooling should be abolished, principally because of its role in social control and indoctrination. A key proponent was Ivan Illich (1926–2002) who promoted the alternative of loosely-based community ‘learning webs’.
detention
the punishment of being kept at school after hours or during breaks. Critics question its value, not least since it is established on the view that being in school is a punishment and so seems unlikely to encourage future attendance, positive views of school, or to promote the desire to benefit from school.
determinism
the philosophical view that all things, including the human will, are determined by causes. The word is also sometimes used in education for the view, or actions and policies consistent with such a view, that a learner’s ability is (essentially) preset and open to limited change or development.
development
the process of growth or advancement – for example, physical, social, cognitive, emotional.
development plan
a detailed scheme, usually prepared on an annual basis, setting out ways in which an organisation, group, or person aims to change or improve. In some countries their use is a legal requirement for education authorities and schools.
devolved
descriptive of a system or instance where power, duties, responsibilities, are passed to a lower level. At national level this can refer, for example, to parliamentary devolution; ai educational administration, it refers to the way in which power over certain matters such as budgets is passed from one level to another – from local council to school management or from school management to departmental or individual staff level (see delegation).
diachronic
concerned with change or development over time ( see synchronic).
diagnostic assessment
an action or process aimed at identifying a particular problem or characteristic. For example, it may involve testing for symptoms of a specific learning difficulty or disorder.
dialectic
concerning logical reasoning and argument (see antithesis, synthesis, thesis).
dialectical materialism
a theory developed by Friedrich Engels (1820-95) and Karl Marx (1818-83) that matter (as opposed to mind) is fundamental, as is change (historical, political) which occurs through the social conflict of contradictions and their solutions.
dialogic
in education, this refers to the oral, social interaction between teacher and learner. It is also a term used in the work of Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975) for any approach which allows for different outlooks or viewpoints as opposed to a single, monologic ‘truth’. This can be seen as aligned with critical pedagogy and opposed to an instructivist, banking model of education.
didactic
a term, usually pejorative, for a teaching approach which is overly dogmatic, instructivist.
differentiation
in education, the process whereby teaching is adapted to suit the needs of different learners within a course, lesson, or classroom. It can involve modifying such things as the topic or subject matter, the task, or the levels of support provided.
direct grant schools
the term used in England for those schools, funded centrally, which provided local selective secondary education. They were abolished in 1976, some coming under local authority control and some becoming independent.
direct teaching
a term for the pedagogical approach where the teacher is communicating personally with a learner, group, or class. It is thus distinguished from any form of pupil-led activity such as group work or pair work. It need not be one-sided but any interaction would be initiated and driven by the teacher.
disability
a physical or mental condition which limits a person’s movements, senses, or activities.
disadvantage
in educational terms this normally means an unfavourable circumstance which limits educational opportunities or reduces the chances of progress.
disaffection
the state or feeling of being dissatisfied with a situation or those in authority. In education, it is particularly associated with those teenagers discontented at their educational arrangements (see alienation).
discipline
the control of behaviour, especially involving punishment to correct disobedience. It has authoritarian connotations, therefore, and has largely been overtaken in educational discourse by the term behaviour management.
disciplines of knowledge
particular branches of knowledge; subject domains or areas (see forms of knowledge).
discourse
a complex term, one sense of which can be described in the words of Michel Foucault (1926-1984) as the group of statements that belong to a single system of formation – for example, political discourse, educational discourse, psychiatric discourse. In a broader sense, however, discourse also means a whole way of understanding and constructing the world, a system of thought, and so is interwoven with issues of social practices and power.
discourse capture
a term for the subtle way in which dominant ideology in the form of its concepts and terminology, comes to be used widely and so becomes the natural way of speaking about and understanding certain issues, even although users may not consciously have subscribed to the underlying outlook.
discovery learning
an inquiry-based learning method. It takes place most notably in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his own experience and prior knowledge to discover the truths that are to be learned. It is a personal, internal, constructivist learning environment.
discrete
separate, distinct. ‘Discreet’, however, means careful, prudent, unobtrusive.
discrimination
the unjust treatment, through prejudicial categorisation, of people, especially on such grounds as race, sex, religion, ability, or age.
discussion
in academic work, the detailed treatment of a topic and its implications.
disequilibrium
in the work of Jean Piaget (1896-1980), cognitive imbalance caused by encountering new experience or knowledge, requiring some form of adaptation by the learner to restore equilibrium.
disposition
in educational usage, this normally refers to a person’s inclinations or tendencies, especially towards learning. It is a contested area as a disposition may merely be an observer’s opinion or perception, and it is hard to judge if this perceived disposition is itself an effect of the person’s educational experience rather than a causal factor.
disruption
disturbance to educational activity, especially that caused by behavioural problems.
dissemination
the spreading of something widely. In education it can refer to information, such as policy or research findings, or to good practice.
distance learning
any programme of study where the learner does not require to be ‘on site’ to undertake the course. There are various different formats, such as through the medium of email, videoconferencing, online or correspondence courses.
divergent
having no finite limits. Divergent questioning means asking ‘open’ questions without a simple, factual answer in mind, aimed at genuinely eliciting opinion, thoughts. Divergent thinking is similarly free of pre-set restrictions. Divergent assessment involves asking open questions or setting tasks which are open-ended, allowing for original responses (see convergent)
diversity
having many differences, heterogenous. In education, it has been used to reflect a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural school population, but has also been used in relation to school provision which allows for many different types of schools to exist or be developed.
dogmatic
very authoritative, opinionated, and assertive, without proof. It can be a feature of certain types of teaching but also can be evident in pupil/student work such as essays.
domain
a field of thought or activity. Educational domains traditionally covered the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. Subject disciplines such as history or science can be termed domains ( see also forms of knowledge).
Down’s syndrome
a congenital disorder which has certain cognitive and physical effects. As its manifestations are varied, some children with the syndrome are able to attend mainstream schools whereas others may require to attend special schools.
drill
an obsolete term for physical education, particularly of the form of mass exercise in the manner of military training. Also a term for certain repeated procedures in types of rote learning , such as a ‘spelling drill’.
driver
this term is used particularly with reference to motivation. In education, it is used for any action, feature, or phenomenon which stimulates or triggers an activity, feeling, or outcome. For example, something may said to be a driver of pupil engagement.
dualism
the state of being in two parts or a doctrine, belief which holds this. It can refer to theories and beliefs in numerous areas such as religion, morality, and politics. Typical examples of dualism would be a belief in good and evil, or in the separation of mind and body, or of the material and the spiritual
duty of care
a legal term in education which refers to the obligation to use a level of care towards pupils/children that any reasonable and prudent person would use to protect them from unnecessary risk of harm.
dyscalculia
difficulty in learning or comprehending mathematical ideas. It can involve difficulty in performing arithmetical operations or more fundamentally with ‘number sense’ so that conceptualising numbers, whether as abstract ideas or as quantities, is problematic.
dyslexia
a neurological deficiency in language use, usually manifested in difficulties with reading and spelling. It is somewhat controversial as some dispute that is can be distinguished satisfactorily from those merely manifesting weak reading and spelling skills which have no neurological basis.
dyspraxia
a condition affecting bodily movement, such as awkwardness in co-ordination.
early education
this term refers to the educational experiences of young children and may include learning experienced in family settings and through informal activities as well as that through planned provision.
early intervention
a term which also occurs in medical discourse, referring to a process of assessment and support afforded to (disadvantaged) young children to aid cognitive, social, and emotional development so that their progression is more in line with their peers
early years
a period of childhood which, dependent on the context and understanding used, may range from pre-birth to around the age of 8
ecological validity
in a research study, the extent to which the findings can be generalised beyond the particular environment and conditions of the original study.
economic rationalism
in its relevance for education, a theory that holds that tailoring the school system to meet the perceived needs of the business world will result in economic growth.
education
a complex term which refers to the process, whether planned or not, formal or not, by which humans develop, in ways deemed to be socially acceptable, in terms of their knowledge, understanding, skills, attitudes, and judgements. State schooling is aimed at providing education, but it may be developed elsewhere, or even in spite of schooling, as some critics suggest. It is certainly the case that some aspects of schooling might not be considered educational, and also certainly the case that not all education is provided by schooling.
educational psychology
a branch of psychology dealing with effective educational techniques and with psychological problems experienced in schools.
educational technology
the identification, development, organisation, or utilisation of educational resources. It is commonly used in a more limited sense to describe the use of ICT, equipment-oriented techniques or audiovisual aids in educational settings.
edumetric
used of approaches to assessment which focus on authentic tasks and acknowledge
cognitive complexity. Unlike psychometric approaches which emphasise differences
between learners on the normal curve, edumetric approaches focus on individual learning, on
within-individual growth.
effectiveness
the state of being successful in producing or achieving desired aims or results. It is a contested term in education because aims in education are the subject of debate and so what is effective from one perspective may not be from another.
efficiency
the state or quality of achieving aims with minimum waste or cost; being well-organised or competent.
egalitarianism
a belief in human equality and the desirability of political, economic, and social equality
ego
the self. In psychoanalysis it is the conscious part of the psyche that mediates between the person and the outside world (see id, superego).
elaborated code
a term in sociolinguistics, introduced by Basil Bernstein (1924-2000), which refers to a style of language marked by its formal, explicit, and complex features. It contrasts with restricted code. Because the education system makes much use of elaborated code, it is suggested that those who have difficulty in using elaborated code will struggle to cope generally.
e-learning
learning on-line or by e-mail.
elective
an optional course which students select from a number of choices. It is rarely central to a course of study but more likely to offer opportunities for specialism or to follow particular interests.
elementary schools
the term used in North America for primary schools. It was also used in the past in the UK for schools which covered the age range from 5 to 14, particularly in industrial areas. Elementary education was also a term used for primary education.
elitism
a belief that certain groups or individuals deserve favoured treatment, or practice which is aligned with such a belief. In education it is associated with the special treatment or higher status afforded to those deemed to be highly intelligent or academically successful. It is also associated with schools or institutions who draw or select entrants from a narrow social base usually reflecting high social status. The term is also used in policy analysis for an approach which restricts power over policy decisions to a small group. It is thus contrasted with pluralist approaches.
emancipation
liberation; the freeing from control, subjection, dependence, slavery. Emancipation is often viewed as goal or consequence of education: individually, in the sense that a person may extricate themselves, through education, from prior mental, social, or economic constraints; socially, in the sense that a group or class may achieve collective liberty or autonomy as a result of educational experiences ( see critical pedagogy).
emeritus
a retired person who retains the honorary title of their post, such as emeritus professor.
emotional and behavioural difficulties
a term used for a range of difficulties, conditions or disorders which may affect a learner’s educational prospects or development, whether cognitive, social, or affective.
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, assess and monitor one’s own and others’ emotions, including the ability to empathise, motivate, and influence. It features in the work of Howard Gardner (b. 1943) and has been popularised by Daniel Goleman (b.1946).
emotive
relating to emotion or feelings. It often refers to use of language which is not purely descriptive but tending to elicit or excite emotion (especially if used intentionally to influence unduly or unfairly).
empathy
fellow feeling; the power to understand another’s feelings by imagining one to be in that person’s situation. In child psychology, this phenomenon is referred to as ‘theory of mind’.
empiricism
the doctrine that knowledge derives from (sense) experience. An empirical approach, in research for example, would rely on, or favour, observation and experiment.
empowerment
the state of being invested with power, being enabled, becoming able. It is used particularly in political contexts involving minorities, oppressed groups, or discrimination, where it means a changing of status from weakness or passivity to action, influence and autonomy. The key principle is that power is internally driven and not gifted from an external source although external forces may be important in initiating the process of change.
enactive, iconic, and symbolic modes
terms from the work of Jerome Bruner (b.1915) on child development: the enactive stage is largely equivalent to Piaget’s sensori-motor stage; the iconic stage is where understanding is influenced more by visual and auditory development; and the symbolic stage where abstract thought becomes possible.
endowed school
a school set up for charitable purposes and endowed with funds (cash, shares or property) by its founders. Many were brought in to the state sector after the 1870s reforms.
engagement
an important term in education, referring to the (degree of) involvement, participation, and commitment of a learner. It is typically understood in three senses: behavioural, affective, and cognitive.
Enlightenment
a philosophical movement of the 18th century characterised by an emphasis on human reason and science rather than on tradition and beliefs. This rationalism had a considerable influence in politics, economics, and religion ( see modernity).
enquiry learning
a learner-centred approach that emphasises higher order thinking skills, including analysis, problem solving, discovery and creative activities, both in the classroom and the community. Most importantly, in enquiry learning learners are responsible for processing the data they are working with in order to reach their own conclusions.
enterprise
initiative and resourcefulness. It is also the term used for school activities and learning related to business, especially of an entrepreneurial sort.
entitlement
a guarantee or legal right. In education, it may refer to certain aspects of the curriculum or to learning support, for example, to which a learner may be entitled.
entity
an entity theory of intelligence assumes intelligence to be fixed. It is an especially damaging view for struggling learners to hold.
entrepreneurialism
the promotion, or belief in the value, of entrepreneurial activity – individuals setting up businesses (often based on innovative or original ideas), with some degree of risk.
episteme
a term from the work of Michel Foucault (1926-1984) for the underlying structure of a discourse, the fundamental concepts which underlie, and delimit, all thinking at a particular historical period.
epistemology
the philosophical study of the origin, limits, and nature of human knowledge; the study of truth, and what can be known.
equal opportunities
the right to be treated without discrimination, especially on the grounds of race, gender, sexuality, age, or ethnic origin.
equality
the state of being the same in some sense such as in quantity, quality, value, or status. In education, it often refers to the sense of fair treatment, or that each learner receives an equal amount or quality of teaching or other input. The school system, however much it endeavours to provide equality, is surrounded by inequality as learners bring unequal experiences and abilities to school, and have unequal contextual experiences in social, emotional, cultural, and economic terms during their school years, thus contributing to unequal educational outcomes.
equilibration
the process or act of achieving or maintaining balance. In the work of Piaget (1896-1980), it refers to the process of adaptation by which a child achieves a meaningful fit between existing knowledge and understanding and new experiences (see accommodation, assimilation).
equilibrium
in the work of Piaget (1896-1980), a state of cognitive balance where the developing mind achieves meaningful understanding of experience.
eristic
pertaining to logical disputation; controversial
essentialism
in education, the belief that certain traditional concepts, ideals, and skills are essential to society and should be taught to all. It does not hold that all that is taught should only be of this nature (see perennialism) but that there is a core which should be passed from generation to generation via the school system. In philosophy, it is a term, dating from the work of Aristotle, for a wide range of positions which hold that people, objects, or phenomena do have innate, real characteristics or properties and that these are not simply social, ideological or intellectual constructs.
establishment
the persons who have power over, are in control of, or administer, something; capitalised, it refers to the traditional, conservative ruling elite in society and its institutions (for example, the church, legal system)
ethics
moral principles, rules of conduct; the branch of philosophy dealing with human conduct, and related theories about what is right, wrong, good, and bad.
ethnic minority
a group, within a community, which has different national or cultural traditions or identity from the majority population.
ethnography
the scientific description of specific human societies or cultures. As a branch of educational research, it is marked by its concern to understand or present phenomena from the particular cultural or social perspectives of those being studied.
ethos
a common but ill-defined term for the characteristic spirit, or climate, of an institution, department or other category of division. It is a mix of attitudes, relationships, approach, and style. It was first made popular when identified as an important factor in schools to counteract the negative effects on attainment of socioeconomic disadvantage. It is now in more general use, related to the school effectiveness and improvement agenda.
etymology
the study of the original roots of words. It can give rise to a type of fallacy where the original meaning of a word is used in claims to reject or counter current usage, or to attempt to limit its application. An example would be if the fact that education comes from the Latin word ‘educare’ meaning ‘to lead out’ is then fallaciously used to attempt to limit current meanings to that sense, or to discount alternative usages of the word.
eugenics
the science of race ‘improvement’ involving controlled breeding to attempt to increase the likely occurrence of desired inherited characteristics. It is deeply unpopular and derided, being associated with Nazi and fascist ideology.
evaluation
assessment. The term is often used in education relating to judgements about the effectiveness of practice, policy, or about professional competence.
evidence
that which tends to prove or disprove something; grounds for belief or action; data which can be used to support decisions or courses of action.
evidence-based
in education, of practice or policy – founded on, or taking cognisance of, best available research.
examination
a (formal) test usually for the purposes of summative assessment.
excellence
the quality of being extremely good or of the highest standard. It can be attributed in norm-referenced, criterion-referenced, and ipsative senses.
exclusion
the process or fact of keeping someone or something out, or of denying access. In school terms, it mostly refers to the practice of refusing to allow a pupil to attend school for a period as a disciplinary sanction. Politically, social exclusion refers to a degree of deprivation which denies individuals and groups access to a good quality of life.
existentialism
a complex philosophical trend which emphasises each individual person as free and responsible for their own decisions and development. It challenges rationalist and empiricist views of humanity.
expectations
in education, beliefs that a learner will or should achieve some goal. Research evidence has been used to suggest that such beliefs can be powerful factors in influencing successful learning, and that low expectations can become a self-fulfilling prophecy.
experiential education
teaching and learning which involves a transactive process between teacher and learner, focused on direct experience. It covers a wide range of approaches from those of John Dewey (1859-1952), to outdoors education, active learning, and environmental education.
experiential learning
independent learning through individual reflection on, and meaning making from, direct experience.
explicit
clearly stated, expressed, detailed or shown; not merely implied or suggested (see implicit).
expressive learning
an approach which focuses on creativity and performance on the part of learners. Learners may communicate what they have learned through the expressive arts – music, drama, dance, for example, and be assessed in those terms.
extension
see core.
external
originating from, or conducted by a body, outside an educational institution. It may refer to such issues as assessment, inspection, or funding.
extracurricular
outside an institution’s regular programme or course of study. Certain sporting activities or choirs and orchestras which take place at lunchtime or after school would have been viewed as extracurricular (also known as co-curriculum).
extra-mural
a term used for university teaching or courses offered to students not in full-time study. In Latin, the words mean ‘beyond, or outside the walls’ so it also sometimes refers to study away from campus or an institution.
extrinsic
not inherent, but originating outside. In education it is most often used in relation to activity where the learner is motivated, or values the activity, because of something other than the activity itself – future reward, for example. The learner thus experiences extrinsic motivation or places extrinsic value on the activity (see intrinsic).
facilitate
to assist the progress of a person or a process. The term is used to reflect the role of a teacher not as the imparter of knowledge (see instructivism) but as one who helps and supports another’s learning (see constructivism).
factor
one of the elements contributing to an event or situation. It is a useful term in educational study as it does not assume a full causal connection: a factor may influence or contribute but need not necessarily be the actual cause of some situation – other (more significant) factors may be involved.
facts
things known to be true; reality, as opposed to beliefs, theories, or possibilities.
faculty
a particular subdivision in a university such as arts faculty or science faculty, or a similar such organisational approach in a secondary school or other institution. In the US, it is a collective term for teaching staff as a whole.
faith school
a school that has a particular religious character or links to a particular church or religious group. There are both state and private schools of this type (see denominational school).
false consciousness
a term deriving from Marxist theory which describes the state whereby dominant ideology so permeates the consciousness of exploited groups that they acquiesce in, justify and perpetuate their own exploitation. Critical reflection and/or sufficient information would, in contrast, enable the exploited to perceive better their situation. Its use has been criticised as suggesting that some other (knowledgeable) person does know what is in the best interests of the exploited, a view which can be used to justify a number of illiberal actions.
falsification
the act of determining that something is false; disproving a theory. It is a key term in the philosophy of science, notably in the work of Karl Popper (1902-1994) who argued that a hypothesis or theory is only scientific if it is falsifiable, if it is logically possible to disprove it. Popper also argued that theories could hold, even if they were not proven, until such time as they were falsified, which provides a means by which science can progress without absolute proof.
fatalism
a belief that things are inevitable, or pre-determined and so unalterable. In education, typical examples would the case of entity theories of intelligence, that intelligence is fixed and cannot be affected by teaching, learning, or studying.
feasibility study
analysis or research into the practicality of a proposed plan or policy.
feedback
an evaluative response to a particular educational outcome or activity. It is also used more generally for any form of evaluative information received.
feeder school
a school whose members move on to another (higher) institution. Primary schools tend not to be described in this way any more as it represents them as subordinate or dependent. ‘Associated primary school’ has been used instead, as has ‘learning community’, to encapsulate all the linked schools in a locale.
fees
money paid to an educational institution for continued attendance and enrolment, such as to a private school or to a university.
feminism
the belief that advocates social, political and other rights for women equal to those of men. Feminist approaches to education and research would also seek to understand phenomena from a female perspective or in the light of female issues.
fieldwork
in educational research, a term used for the process of gathering evidence. In school contexts, it mostly refers to outdoor study activities in certain subject areas such as geography.
finishing school
a private girls’ school, usually for older teenagers, which focuses on social subjects and cultural activities normally associated with upper class or privileged society.
flashcard
a card, part of a set, shown to a young learner, usually to check word recognition, or to test simple arithmetical tasks.
flexible learning
approaches to learning which emphasise student choice about where, when, and how learning will take place, adapting to individual preference and convenience.
flow
a psychological term for the complete sense of fulfilment which a learner may experience when involved in activity which is interesting, rewarding, and fully engaging. It is sometimes summarised as involving self-efficacy in goal achievement
folio
a coherent body of work created by a learner, usually in one subject area (see coursework).
formal curriculum
the timetabled, official, teaching and learning activities of an educational institution, programme of study, or course (see informal curriculum).
formal operational
the final stage in Piaget’s genetic epistemology, marked by the ability to think logically and deal in abstract ideas (see concrete operational; preoperational; sensori-motor).
formative assessment
assessment used to support learning as opposed to simply measuring and recording. In this way the process and the outcomes of the evaluation are used to aid future improvement (see summative).
forms of knowledge
a term from the work of P.H.Hirst (b. 1927) for different classes of knowledge which can be identified by their having distinct concepts, logical structures, and ways of judging truth and falsity. Hirst’s views have been influential in curriculum design but are the subject of considerable criticism. Hirst identifies seven such forms of knowledge: mathematics, physical science, religion, philosophy, literature and the fine arts, moral, and interpersonal (see disciplines; domain).
foster care
arrangements for the support and upbringing of a child or young person, away from their natural home, but without adoption. It can be done within other family homes, or in a separate institution.
foundation school
In England and Wales, the name for what used to be known as grant-maintained schools. No fees are charged, they are under local authority control, but the board of governors have increased powers, allowing a degree of independence over such things as admission policy
foundationalism
any theory which holds that beliefs are justified, or can be held as true, if they are based on foundation beliefs, such as a self-evident truth, or a basic proposition which is self-justifying. An example is the work of Rene Descartes (1596–1650) which identifies ‘cogito ergo sum’ – ‘I think, therefore I am’ – as a foundation belief. Many critics dispute that such foundations – absolutely free of doubt or scepticism - can be found
free school
a private school organised as an alternative to the traditional state or independent school, often featuring a flexible curriculum and progressive teaching methods.
freedom
the absence of restraints or oppression; the capacity to exercise self-determination, autonomy. Education and schooling have typically been seen as promoting individual and group freedom in that an educated person is deemed to have more freedom, or opportunities to exercise such, than an uneducated person. Other critics see schooling as impairing and restricting freedom, serving as a form of social control or indoctrination (see emancipation).
free will
the philosophical view that human action is not determined by physical or other forces but is expressive of personal choice or volition (see determinism).
fresh start
in educational contexts, this usually refers (in a pejorative sense) to an approach which discounts or ignores prior learning and experience. Thus a secondary school which takes no account of a learner’s primary school reports or achievements would be said to be practising a ‘fresh start’.
full service model
a system of community school provision where a number of agencies are sited on the one campus and endeavour to work together in an integrated way – such as a secondary school with various health, social work, and employment bodies.
functionalism
any doctrine stressing practicality and utility. In education, it is often used pejoratively of approaches which focus on skills and training at the expense of other curricular elements such as cultural or artistic enrichment, for example.
further education
educational provision beyond the secondary stage, most typically centred in college specialising in vocational courses.
gender
sexual identity; a grouping such as male or female. The term tends to be used in relation to social and cultural categories whereas sex tends to be used in a biological sense.
generalisability
usually related to research findings or statistics, the fact of being more widely applicable than merely to the particular instance in question; the inferring of a principle or rule from particular findings.
generative topics
a term used in the ‘Teaching for Understanding’ movement for themes or ideas for teaching which have sufficient depth, connections, and significance to help develop real understanding in learners. However, unless learners are involved early on in their development or selection, there is a risk of a teacher-centred or -dominated curriculum emerging (see rich tasks).
genetic epistemology
the study of the origins and development of knowledge undertaken in the work of Jean Piaget (1896-1980).
gestalt
a unified whole that cannot be derived from a summation of constituent parts. It features in theories of learning which emphasise the way learners make sense of the world in meaningful wholes and not as atomised simple ideas/perceptions which are then amalgamated.
gifted
like talented, a term for learners deemed to be particularly able either in a specific area of learning or in a global sense. It is in common use but is problematic in many ways, especially in the concept of ‘gifted underachievement’ which is not at all easy to define far less identify.
global
worldwide. Metaphor for total, complete, or widespread, as used in the term ‘global learning difficulties’, for example.
globalisation
growth to a global or worldwide scale. It is often used with reference to the ways in which dominant western economic, social, and political ideas and practices have become internationally prevalent and highly influential.
goal
an educational outcome or achievement towards which teaching (and learning) is consciously directed.
governance
the act, manner or function of governing.
governmentality
a term from the work of Michel Foucault (1926-1984) which refers to a form of activity intended to guide or shape conduct in a variety of contexts, and the rationalisation of such activity; mentalities of rule; how we think about governing ourselves and others.
governors
the body of people elected and co-opted to manage schools. It is a term in use in the English system, and more widely in the independent schools sector.
grade
in assessment practice, a numerical or literal mark indicating a level of achievement.
grade inflation
the (internal) awarding of higher grades than is merited either to maintain a school's academic reputation or as a result of diminished teacher expectations.
grade point average
a term from the US educational system: a measure of scholastic attainment figured by dividing the grade points earned by the number of credits attempted.
grade retention
a term from the US educational system for the practice of having (school) students repeat a year/course where they are deemed to have failed.
grade-related criteria
stipulated indicators of performance expected at different levels, to aid assessment judgements or set standards.
grading on the curve
where assessment is conducted so that there is a normal distribution of learners’ results, with most around the mean and a few at either pole.
grammar school
a term in use since the middle ages, originally indicating a school offering a classical curriculum. More recently it refers to an academically oriented school, usually with entry determined by selection – the 11-plus exam in England, the qualifying exam in Scotland. These were abolished following the introduction of comprehensive schools in 1965, but some areas of England have retained or re-introduced them.
grant-aided
the term used in Scotland for direct grant schools.
grant-maintained
a type of school introduced in England in 1988 which remains in the state sector but is funded by central government.
grants
an amount of money which is given to a person or body for some purpose, for example a student grant, or a block grant from central to local government.
graphicacy
the ability to use and understand symbols, graphs, diagrams, plans, and maps. It is allied in usage to literacy and numeracy.
grounded theory
a method of qualitative research which endeavours to operate by having theory ‘emerge’ from the data rather than approaching data with theory or preconceived concepts. Its attempt to be more naturalistic by drawing its theoretical framework and related concepts from the participants themselves is not without its critics.
groupthink
a term for the phenomenon whereby members of a group may suppress disagreement, fail to consider alternative suggestions, ignore the wider, practical implications of their thinking, adopt a uniformly consensus approach which may result in poor decision-making.
groupwork
an approach to teaching where collective tasks are assigned to groups of learners, although the completion may still be on an individual basis (see co-operative learning; collaborative learning).
growth
a common metaphor for educational development.
guidance
pastoral care provided in schools.
halo effect
an inaccurate assessment or evaluation of a learner and their performance caused by having an overly positive impression based on past results and/or flimsy evidence
Hawthorne effect
the influence on results which a researcher’s presence may create. This may be due to several factors such as the participants’ desire to please, or tendency to act differently from normal in the presence of the researcher. Research projects therefore are usually designed to minimise or avoid such effects.
hegemony
a term most commonly associated with the work of Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937). It refers to the ways in which dominant groups in society achieve and sustain their status not by physical coercion but by cultural and social control such as influence in key bodies and organisations but more importantly in terms of ideas and discourse.
hermeneutic
pertaining to interpretation or explanation.
heuristic
relating to a method of teaching aimed at enabling learners to find out things for themselves. It is also a term used for an approach to problem-solving based on trial and error.
heutagogy
a term coined in 2007 by an Australian academic Stewart Hase for self-directed learning, as
opposed to teacher-led or teacher-directed approaches.
hidden curriculum
the by-products or unintended outcomes of schooling; the learning experienced by learners which is beyond the formal or planned curriculum, perhaps through assimilating the values explicitly and implicitly evident in a school and its processes and practices. It is often viewed as an insidious way by which children become socialised and acquire some of the (dominant) ideology of a society.
hierarchy
any system by which people are ranked one above the other (in terms of power and status), especially as evident in organisational structures (such as school management).
high school
a term no longer in use in the UK for a secondary school, although some schools have retained the title. It was typically used in the past for a grammar school or independent school.
high stakes assessment
a test, or system of testing, which has important consequences for those taking part: for example, it may lead to divergent future pathways in education, to big rewards, to stark intimations of success/failure, to continuity in or removal from a course/institution. It is associated with anxiety and stress and may thus be prone to producing unreliable results.
higher education
education beyond the secondary level, especially at college or university ( see tertiary).
higher order thinking
thinking that requires learners to manipulate information and ideas in ways that transform their meaning and implications. This transformation occurs when students combine facts and ideas in order to synthesise, generalise, explain, hypothesise or arrive at some conclusion or interpretation. Learners are encouraged to reason and apply knowledge in different ways (critical thinking, problem-solving) rather than simply to repeat facts (see Bloom’s taxonomy)
holistic
referring to the whole. A holistic approach to child education would attempt to deal with all aspects of the child’s life, including the personal. A holistic form of assessment is where the assessment item is graded as a whole, rather than broken down into constituent parts, each of which is then assessed individually.
home schooling/education
educational provision undertaken by the family rather than by state or private schools. As early legislation placed the duty on the parent to provide or secure education for the child, this was permissible. Provision is still subject to inspection. Opinion is divided on the nature of the educational experience offered by home schooling, concerns principally raised in relation to the capacity to provide effective social education and, in cases where religious conviction is a key factor in the parental choice of home schooling, to respect children’s growing rights to freedom of expression and belief.
horizontal
in educational management, an arrangement which deals with learners of similar status such as in terms of age/stage: for example, dealing with all of the one yeargroup rather than involving individuals from different year groups. A vertical pastoral system would mean a teacher dealing with learners from different stages of school, whereas in a horizontal system, the teacher would only deal with those from the one yeargroup.
horseshoe
descriptive of a classroom seating design where learners are seated in such a way as the overall pattern resembles a horseshoe shape. It means everyone can see everyone else; the teacher normally would be seated in the gap.
hot knowledge
a term for the sort of information gleaned from informal social interaction rather than from official documentation or sources. It has been identified as a key factor in the way parents and others form judgements about schools and their processes.
hothousing
a controversial form of intensive educational provision aimed at accelerating learning, particularly in younger children. The approach can involve children being presented for public exams far earlier than would normally be expected or recommended.
human capital (theory)
a reductionist term devised by economist Theodore Shultz (1902–1998) which views people (employees) as capital, and so susceptible to improvement through investment in the form of training and education. The theory is that good investment will pay dividends for the individual in terms of future rewards and for society in terms of the improved economic productive capacity of such individuals.
human resources
a modern term for personnel management, including responsibility for staff recruitment, pay, and retirement or dismissal, and other aspects of employee conditions and organisational efficiency.
humanism
in philosophy, an outlook which stresses the intrinsic value, dignity, and rationality of human beings. It has become associated with atheism but (aspects of) humanism can be a feature of religious outlooks too.
humanities
learning or literature concerned with human culture, especially the study of Latin and Greek. The term is used more broadly nowadays to refer to all study of literature, history, art, music, and philosophy.
hyperactivity
in children, the condition of being physically active to an abnormal extent, sometimes associated with neurological or psychological causes. (see Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder).
hypothesis
a supposition or proposed explanation which is used as the starting point for further investigation. A research project, for example, may be constructed to test out a particular hypothesis. In philosophical contexts, it is also a term for a proposition which is used simply as a basis for reasoning without any assumption that it is true.
hypothetical
supposed but not necessarily true; possible but not certain.
id
a term in Freudian psychology for the innate, instinctive impulses of the individual (see ego; superego).
idealism
in philosophy, any theory which stresses the mental, ideas over matter, and so opposed to realism and materialism. An extreme form is that only ideas exist and all reality is a product of the mind.
ideology
a system of ideas and beliefs that informs and shapes an understanding of the world, especially in the socio-political sphere.
idiot savant
a French term for a person who has a mental disability or learning difficulties but is extremely gifted in a particular way, or who (occasionally) displays natural wisdom or insight.
imaginary
see social imaginary
immersion
an approach to foreign language learning which involves exclusive use of the language, often for an intensive period and sometimes involving little direct teaching.
imperative
expressing a command; compulsory; essential. As a noun it is also used to mean something which must be addressed or attended to: thus, an imperative facing a school or education authority might be to achieve a balanced budget.
implicit
suggested, assumed or implied without being directly expressed or stated (see explicit).
improvement
development or change (especially in performance) that meets with approval. In education it is particularly associated with gains made by an individual learner as measured by assessment tests. It is, however, notoriously difficult to determine the key causal factors which contribute to such improvement.
inclusion
in educational contexts, the process or fact of increasing the participation of all learners within the system as a whole, or within the curriculum, culture, and community of particular establishments. Most commonly, it involves developing or offering a single form of educational provision for all learners – regardless of ability. Thus, learners who would previously have been sent to separate institutions for a variety of reasons are included within one overall set-up. There may continue to be specialist institutional provision for those with particularly pronounced needs but the assumption is that all learners will be provided for within the one system. This brings with it certain challenges relating to resources, staff expertise, class sizes, and equality – trying to balance the needs of the individual with the common good. More broadly, inclusion can relate to similar issues of participation and equity relating to race, culture, language, ethnicity, social class, wealth, gender, age, disability, sexual orientation. independent school
a school, typically fee-paying, which is privately run, as opposed to one run by the state. In England, such schools are unhelpfully termed public schools; in Scotland, private schools.
individualised learning
a term used imprecisely but which most commonly refers to the provision of particular learning activities or programmes of study designed, or intended, to meet an individual learner’s specific needs or requirements. Identifying such needs accurately is problematic and there is also the danger of inequity being created if some learners are offered inferior or undemanding educational experiences as a result.
individualism
any theory or outlook which places more value on the person than on the group, which puts more importance on individual experience and effects than on collective issues.
indoctrination
teaching aimed at the uncritical acceptance of a set of beliefs.
induction
a process or activity designed to introduce a learner to a new environment, experience, or area of learning. In logic, the word means the creation of a general rule or principle from study of observed instances or detailed facts (see deduction).
infant school
an institution providing education for the very young child. In the USA, ‘infant’ education covers the years from birth until three years, whereas in the UK the first two years of primary education, from ages five until seven years, can be termed ‘infant’.
inference
the act of reasoning, or drawing conclusions, from factual knowledge or evidence.
informal education
learning which takes place without structured teaching, or learning undertaken in a setting which promotes self-directed learning.
information processing
a model in cognitive psychology which explains thought and thinking in a way similar to a computer with inputs, storage, retrieval, and outputs.
information technology
the study or use of systems (especially computers) for storing, retrieving or communicating information.
informed consent
(formal notification of) willingness to be a participant in a research study based on an understanding of the nature of the project.
in loco parentis
a Latin, legal term meaning ‘in the place of the parents’. In educational contexts, it refers to the role of teachers in assuming the duties and responsibilities of a parent towards young people in their charge.
initial teacher education
the modern term for teacher training, aimed to avoid the more narrow connotations of training by stressing the more expansive nature of education. The term also aims to indicate that this sort of development does not cease at the pre-service stage but that all teachers will be expected to be involved in continuous professional development. Undergraduate courses are either 3 or 4 years in length, while courses for graduates are generally of one year’s duration. Part-time and distance versions are also now on offer.
innate
existing from birth; inborn. Perennial educational debate centres around the extent to which certain skills, aptitudes, and abilities are inborn, and thus the extent to which they susceptible to teaching, if at all (see nature-nurture).
in-service training
planned job-related activities or courses aimed at the development of professional knowledge and skills.
inspection
a formal system of assessment and evaluation conducted to determine the nature and standard of educational provision in a variety of sectors.
inspectorate
the formal name for the body of inspectors, set up to report on educational provision and give advice to government. In recent times, the inspectorate has also assumed a role in ‘improvement’, although there remains some tension between its operating procedures, which can be perceived by some as stressful and negative, and that goal.
instruction
the imparting of knowledge, information, or direction. In North America it is a term still commonly used for ‘teaching’ whereas in Britain the word’s didactic, authoritarian connotations means it is rarely ever used in such a way.
instructivism
an approach to teaching marked by direct communication of the teaching material from the teacher to the learner. The learner is a largely passive recipient of the knowledge which is possessed by the teacher. Instructivism attracts little support as an effective method of teaching/learning (see banking model; constructivism; transmission).
instrumental learning
another term used for operant conditioning. Also known as instrumental conditioning.
instrumentalism
in education, the view that schooling or educational activity is aimed at some other purpose such as for economic or religious ends.
integrated education
an interdisciplinary approach to teaching or learning, as opposed to a subject-specific one. It is more common in the early stages as later objections are raised that it struggles to develop the depth of understanding within subject domains, and also is less easy to fit to an assessment system aimed to certificate within subject disciplines. Clearly, a change to an integrated assessment system would meet that charge, but the problem of addressing depth of disciplinary knowledge remains (see cross-curricular).
integration
the term previously used for inclusion but now less common owing to its suggestion that the learner had to adapt to the school system instead of the school adjusting to the learner’s needs.
integrative
A term from the work of Paulo Freire (1921-1997) for the way in which an emancipated learner can act upon, as well as respond to, the environment, both physical and social (see adaptation).
intellect
the faculty of reasoning and understanding especially in abstract matters.
intelligence
a complex and controversial term which has a range of definitions. At its simplest it refers to mental ability or capacity. Intelligence testing was common in the 20th century, it being believed that it was both possible and appropriate to do so, the results being used to categorise individuals for various purposes, such as the nature of educational provision then deemed suitable for each.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
a figure representing a measure of an individual’s mental reasoning ability as compared to the average for people of their age (taken as 100).
intelligent design
the view that that life, the universe, cannot have emerged by chance but through creation by some intelligent entity. It thus opposes the theory of evolution but is denied itself the status of theory by some critics in that it is hard to see how it could ever be falsified.
interactive teaching
teaching where learners are active, especially in the sense of communicating together and with the teacher; computerised learning where the individual is actively involved in some programme of an educational nature.
interagency
in education, descriptive of the coordinated action of various agencies such as health, social work, and school.
interests
activities or subjects which are seen as relevant, meaningful, desirable, or enjoyable by the learner. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Dewey (1859-1952), sometimes inappropriately, are most associated with the view that education should be tailored to the learner’s interests. While there are obvious issues to do with motivation and appropriateness in such a view, account must also be taken of the other purposes of state education, and of the fact that a strict adherence to such a view might lead to some learners remaining within very limited horizons. Some judge the interests of the child merely to be a useful educational starting-point, while others suggest it is a teacher’s role to expand the interests of the child.
interdisciplinary
relating to, or involving, more than one branch of knowledge. It may, for example, refer to research activity involving representatives from various subject areas or to curriculum or course design.
intergenerational mobility
a key measure of the extent to which the education system improves the life chances of individuals and tackles socioeconomic inequality. It measures the extent to which the offspring of one generation improve their social status or socioeconomic position over time. In unequal stratified societies, mobility tends to be limited whereas in more open, egalitarian societies much more movement of this sort is possible.
interpersonal
relating to communication or relationships between people.
intervention
any action intended to stop a process from developing or to improve a situation. In education, this occurs in many areas including that of behaviour management and teaching approaches. Research studies into the effects of such interventions are often highly-prized but as with all educational issues the extent to which such interventions can be replicated or the effects generalisable is always questionable (see early intervention).
intrinsic value
having inherent benefit or being prized without reference to any other purpose. Learning of this sort is often valorised because it means it is enjoyable, the activity is not merely being used in some strategic sense, nor is it devalued by being a means to an end. Learning of this sort is also tends to be deeper and more long-lasting (see extrinsic; flow).
introversion-extraversion
a model in the study of personality which places humans along a polar spectrum from extravert (outgoing, physical, social) to introvert (inward-looking, reserved, withdrawn). It is not currently given much credence.
invigilator
a supervisor in formal examinations.
ipsative
self-referenced. In assessment, this can either mean self-assessment through self-reporting, or, more commonly, using a grading system suited to an individual’s personal circumstances (self-referenced), rather than norm-referenced or criterion-referenced.
iterative
marked by repetition, particularly a sequenced cycle of activity. It is most commonly used
in related to data analysis within research projects where the material is revisited
regularly as a means of improving understanding, and the validity of the conclusions
being drawn.
jigsaw
an approach to group teaching where each group is allocated a sub-task and an integrated plenary session is required for groups to share their results and so complete the overall task. It thus leads to a more productive feedback session as each group requires to attend to every other group’s reporting back. It requires careful construction, however, to ensure parity of task in terms of focus, complexity, and learning goals.
junior school
in England, a school for children aged 7 to 11. It may be a separate institution or incorporated within a primary school. It is also a term used by some independent schools for their primary departments.
kindergarten
a school for early years children, prior to primary school, which places importance on the educational value of play. Literally it means ‘children’s garden’.
knowledge
a term that has taxed philosophers (see epistemology) but which can be understood as the body of facts, information, and beliefs that one acquires through educational and other experiences; practical or theoretical understanding of a subject.
knowledge economy
a term, related to the concept of the information age, referring to the idea of ‘workers’ producing or articulating ideas, knowledge, and information, in contrast with an industrial economy where workers work manually to produce physical objects.
labelling
the practice of assigning a grade or descriptor to a learner based on perceived characteristics of that learner. It is now recognised as being both highly unreliable and also counterproductive as labels may induce self-fulfilling prophecies or, if communicated, have negative effects on learners’ attitudes and motivation.
lad o’ pairts
a term from Scottish educational history, referring to the young boy from humble origins who demonstrates academic talent and is able to achieve success owing to an (allegedly) open educational system.
laissez-faire
originally, this referred to the policy or doctrine of political non-interference in economic affairs, allowing unregulated ‘free enterprise’. It is now more generally used for any approach marked by non-interference, minimal restriction, or reluctance to exert control.
latch-key child
a term, dating from the 1960s, for a school pupil unsupervised after school, usually because parents or caregivers are working, but who is given a house-key so access to the home is possible. The phenomenon was viewed by some as indicative of lack of parental supervision and care.
lateral thinking
creative thinking; producing ideas which are not obvious or plainly derivative.
lay inspector
an individual, not from a background within the educational system or establishment, who takes part in inspections alongside professional inspectors. Originally, the role was to offer an independent viewpoint, designed to counter any professional collusion or bias.
leadership
the exercise of authority in directing or managing the work of others. It has lately become a key focus because of its deemed importance in effecting positive change in schools. Clearly, there are other relevant issues to consider: professional knowledge and understanding, values, and morality. The ability to make change happen will only improve schools if that change has merit, regardless of the leadership skills employed.
leadership class
a term from the work of Walter Humes (b.1945), referring to the small group of professionals and bureaucrats who wield power over Scottish education. It is used in contrast with the perceived pluralism of a policy community.
league tables
lists of school performance in various categories, created or published to aid accountability and to inform parents and other interest groups. Their fairness, appropriateness, value in driving up standards, or role in assisting parental choice of school, are all questionable.
learned helplessness
a psychological term for a complete sense of powerlessness where the individual feels, owing to bad experiences, that no action of theirs can alter their position or achieve success.
learning
a vast literature surrounds this topic, and much debate, linked to rival theories which address it. The least controversial that can be said of the term is that it refers to some sort of cognitive, behavioural, or affective change or development in the individual, associated with interaction with external forces.
learning cell
a teaching approach whereby a group of learners study together, largely self-directed, for a particular purpose and over an agreed time-span.
learning community
an organised grouping working together to increase knowledge, skills, and understanding
learning curve
the rate of progress by a learner in a new situation or in new skills. A steep learning curve indicates that high demands are made on the learner, that much needs to be understood quickly.
learning difficulty
a problem encountered in acquiring knowledge or skills, especially related to mental disability or cognitive disorder.
learning needs
support required in a situation by a learner to enable them to acquire the relevant knowledge and skills.
learning outcomes
the aims or objectives of a learning experience, usually expressed in a list of the knowledge, behaviours, or attitudes, expected to be possessed or displayed by the learner at the end.
learning partner
anyone serving as a support or peer in a learning activity.
learning society
an idealistic political term for the phenomenon whereby everyone in society would be engaged in and committed to learning throughout life. It is heavily linked to economic interests, it being most associated with improving and upgrading skills for work.
learning style
the (preferred) way in which an individual typically receives and processes new information. Sometimes it is considered in a fixed way and teachers are encouraged to adapt teaching to this; others see the role of teachers as aiding the development of a range of effective learning strategies, rather than playing to a learner’s fixed, and perhaps restricting, ‘style’.
learning support
extra help for pupils either in the form of specialist teaching support or in the form of specially designed resources. While sometimes targeted at those excelling in a particular area, it is most commonly linked to efforts to improve the performance of learners who are not progressing well.
leaving age
the age at which an individual may leave compulsory education.
left wing
descriptive of socialist or radical political views.
liberal education
a term for a broad, general education without any emphasis on training for a particular purpose or job, where the aim is more to offer exposure to a range of subjects and activities, including culture and the arts.
liberal studies
(a course of) arts subjects such as literature, history, philosophy.
liberalism
in politics, a range of views which focus on individual freedom, free trade, and moderate social reform. In education, it is an approach which favours broadening general knowledge, cultural activities, and experience over technical or utilitarian training. Socially, it is a term associated with more permissive and broadminded attitudes which came into prominence in the 1960s.
libertarianism
a version of liberalism which gives most importance to the concept of free choice. There should be a minimal state guaranteeing protection against force or theft but otherwise people should be free to do as they wish.
lifelong learning
the process by which people beyond the age of compulsory education continue to engage in learning in a variety of settings and formats.
Likert scale
a scale, commonly used in questionnaires, which measures the degree to which people agree or disagree with a statement. It usually has a 5-point scale but other configurations also exist. It is named after the US psychologist Rensis Likert (1903-1981).
liminality
a psychological term for the experience of transition where one is on the threshold of a new experience or environment and encounters some uncertainty, disorientation, and a loss of identity.
linguistic codes
see restricted code, elaborated code
literacy
the ability to read and write. The judgement as to what level of competence constitutes ‘literacy’ varies over time and across cultures. Increasingly, the term 'literacies' is used to stress the range of skills involved and the different media contexts such as audio-visual and electronic.
literature search
the process of identifying sources, such as books and journal articles, related to a topic under study.
local (education) authorities
the controlling or administrative body for state education at local government level.
locus of control
a term from psychology for the explanations individuals use to explain behaviour or performance. An external view attributes control to forces beyond the individual’s control, whereas an internal explanation puts more emphasis on the individual’s own agency.
logical positivism
a philosophical position which holds that statements are only meaningful if they can be empirically verified or if they can be verified by logical analysis. It dates from the 1930s but was dogged by the problem that it was not clear that its own principles could pass its own test for meaningfulness.
longitudinal study
research which studies the same items/people over a period of time. This type of study is common in educational psychology, aimed at tracking development or change over time.
lower order questioning
questions which demand little of the learner beyond factual recall. They are principally designed to test knowledge rather than higher order questioning which can have a role in creating or expanding knowledge.
macro/meso/micro
prefixes which indicate scale: largest, medium, smallest. Their application depends on context. Thus in terms of education policy national level may be macro, local government level meso, and school level micro. In terms of a secondary school, however, whole school issues may be macro, departmental/faculty meso, individual classroom micro.
magnet school
a school in a locale which tends to attract more parents/pupils than any other(s). The main reason for its drawing power is often hard to identify but is commonly linked to social class. A school which already has a more middle-class roll will tend to attract even more middle class entrants, at the expense of other school(s) which then experience both falling rolls and a skewing of social mix.
maieutic
descriptive of the Socratic method of revealing another’s thinking or knowledge through a logical process of close questioning. The Greek root relates to midwifery so the meaning can be seen in terms of that metaphor – bringing something forth, revealing what is hidden.
mainstreaming
the process or policy of including children with special or additional educational needs within state schools, rather than in special schools.
maintained
the term used in England for a school funded by the state
management
the act or process of managing, controlling, directing, administering. It is also used as a collective noun for those persons employed in such a role in an institution.
managerialism
the belief that, as all organisations are basically similar, their performance can be optimised by the application of generic management skills and theory. Thus, professional experience and skills in education would not be seen as necessary for a manager in an educational context. The term is often used pejoratively of any approach which is management-dominated, often without due regard to educational theory and values, or of a viewpoint which stresses the important of internal management processes and structures in an educational institution at the expense of awareness of wider societal pressures and contextual influences.
marginalised
placed in a position of low importance, with little influence or power. In educational contexts, it is often used in relation to disadvantaged or oppressed groups, but can also be used of viewpoints, ideas or theories which have been sidelined.
marketisation
the belief in, or process of, making public sector agencies and provision function like a free market. In education, for example, this may involve creating ‘consumer’ choice, through having schools compete (for pupils) against each other like private companies, the theory being that this improves efficiency and accountability.
marking
evaluating, assessing, or grading a learner’s work. The term is fluid enough to range from merely applying a summative grade to supplying much more detailed feedback. The term is also used as noun for the actual material to be marked.
marxism
the political and economic philosophy of Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). In brief, the theory holds that social and political structures are determined by economic conditions, that class domination has been the key phenomenon in social history, that class struggle creates historical change, and that capitalism will be superseded ultimately by communism. One aspect of its educational application, for example, would be the view that schools and the curriculum are not neutral but serve dominant class interests.
mastery learning
a term with wide application but most commonly used for an approach, drawn from the work of Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999), which concentrates on the learner becoming fully competent and skilled before attempting the next level of complexity. The connotations of the terms ‘master’ or ‘mastery’ make its modern usage rare (see Bloom’s taxonomy).
matching
in teaching, the idea that activities and learning programmes should be suited to pupil needs and abilities. In a research study, the attempt to ensure that groups to be compared are alike in key characteristics.
materialism
(1) the tendency to view possessions, consumption, and comfort above spiritual or other values. (2) the belief that nothing exists except matter, a rejection of idealism.
maturation
the process of development (in education, especially of the child to adult).
mean
(an) average.
mechanistic
descriptive of an approach or theory which treats phenomena in purely physical or deterministic ways. In education, it is often used pejoratively for any viewpoint which does not treat people as autonomous individuals but more as things or numbers.
median
the midpoint in a distribution (of scores in a test, for example). The mean is the average score but the median is the score which has an equal number of individual scores lying above and below it.
memory
the faculty by which a person stores and remembers information.
mental age
a person’s mental ability expressed in terms of the age at which the average person demonstrates the same ability. A mental age of 10 can be held by any person, regardless of human age, it representing what the average 10 year old person is capable of (normally in terms of verbal reasoning or some other reputed test of intelligence)
mentor
a more experienced person who advises and trains new colleagues.
meritocracy
a belief, or a system operating on the principles, that advancement and reward should be based on a person’s perceived ability and talent rather than on wealth and privilege. Criticisms of it include the argument that it takes insufficient account of pre-existing societal inequalities such that the ability and talent of minorities or the disadvantaged may remain unrecognised, ignored, or suppressed.
meta-analysis
a technique or procedure for summarising or collating the results of research studies which cover the same or similar topics (see systematic review).
metacognition
thinking about thinking; awareness of one’s thinking and cognitive processes. It has recently been suggested as an important aspect of successful learning.
metaphysics
the branch of philosophy which deals with first principles, such as the nature of what there is, and what we can know (see ontology, epistemology). It is also used as a general term for outlooks which are influenced by idealism, as opposed to empiricism.
methodology
in teaching, the principles, practices, and procedures which are employed (see pedagogy). In educational research, it refers to a justification of the principles, practices, and procedures informing the construction of, and employed in, the research project.
methods
the practices of teaching or research. They can be observed whereas methodology involves some kind of principled justification.
micro teaching
a scaled-down version of teaching, in controlled conditions, used for analysing teaching techniques and developing new skills. It often involves videotaping of lessons for the purpose of review and discussion.
middle class
the social division associated with professional and managerial employment, but also reflecting differences in terms of economic standing and culture (see working class).
middle school
an institution in England covering the ages from 8 to 12 or 9 to 13 - typically the upper stages of primary and lower stages of secondary.
minority ethnic
any recognisable ethnic group, distinct from the main ethnic grouping(s) of a community or society, especially one suffering disadvantage or discrimination.
mission statement
a formal summary of the aims and values of an organisation. In education, local authorities, institutions, and smaller bodies such as departments may have such.
mixed ability
a teaching group which represents a range of ability. It also is used to describe approaches to school organisation where learners are organised so that classes are composed of pupils representing a range of abilities (see banding, setting, streaming).
mnemonic
a device to aid memory, particularly one where a phrase is created using the initial letters of the thing to be memorised. Every good boy deserves favour – for the notes on the scale EGBDF; Richard of York gave battle in vain – for the colours of the rainbow Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo and Violet. The more striking the phrase the more likely the memory will last.
modelling
teaching by example, where the teacher, or other learner in that role, demonstrates the intended outcome, process, or practice, with the aim that learners will imitate this, or base their own performance on it.
moderation
in education, this most commonly refers to the process of standardising assessment decisions, aiming at consistency and fairness.
modernity
a term used for philosophical, political and social outlooks originating in the Enlightenment, which have in common a commitment to science and its methods, to rationalism, and an expectation of continuous human development and improvement as a result.
module
a discrete unit of work in a programme of study. It will typically be coherent in terms of topic and have associated assessment task(s).
monitoring
checking or supervising, especially in relation to standards or performance
monologic
a term from the work of Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975), referring to any approach which does not permit a range of views but holds to ‘one simple truth’; authoritarian (see dialogic).
Montessori method
an approach to early education developed by Maria Montessori (1870-1952) which emphasises natural expression and learning through the senses.
morality
the study of, or beliefs about, what is considered right and wrong, and the nature of goodness (see ethics).
motivation
a term from psychology which refers to the factors which activate or maintain certain behaviours. It is of key interest in education, as it has an effect on learning and on learners’ success (see extrinsic, intrinsic)
multicultural
involving many different cultural, ethnic, racial, social, and religious groups. It may be used descriptively of a society, community, institution, or educational approach or programme.
multilateral school
a term from early 20th century education in England and Wales for a comprehensive state secondary school which served as the common school for an area. Similar schools in Scotland were known as omnibus schools.
multiple choice test
a form of assessment involving participants choosing the best or correct answer from a selection given in response to the stated question. They are quick and easy to administer but are problematic. For example, it can be prone to rewarding (informed) guesswork or of merely testing factual recall, unless well-designed.
multiple intelligences
a term from the work of Howard Gardner (b. 1943) which broadens the notion of intelligence to cover a wider range of human capacities rather than simply language/vocabulary and logico-mathematical abilities.
nationalism
any of a range of theories which lay stress on the nation-state either in terms of pursuing self-determination – political independence, national liberation – or by promoting the nation-state and duties towards it. Fascism is an extreme form which elevates the nation-state and demands devotion from its citizens. Ethnic forms of nationalism emphasise issues of race, religion, and culture rather than the state as political unit. Another strand of nationalism involves feelings of superiority over other countries.
natural selection
a term from the work of Charles Darwin (1809-82) for the phenomenon whereby organisms better suited to their environment survive, flourish, and reproduce (in contrast to weaker ones). Sometimes known as ‘the survival of the fittest’ (see social Darwinism).
naturalism
a philosophical outlook which views reality as natural, rejecting any sense of the supernatural. It rejects the idea of divinity and is opposed to idealism and metaphysics.
nature
that which exists from birth; hereditary; inborn essence.
nature-nurture controversy
dispute about the extent to which human development is determined by inherited capacities (nature) or by experience and environmental influence (nurture). The argument seems irresolvable but that both have an influence seems beyond dispute.
necessary condition
a factor which is essential for another phenomenon to exist but may not be sufficient to achieve it alone. For example, having a writing implement is a necessary condition for good writing to take place but simply having a writing implement does not guarantee the quality of the subsequent writing (see sufficient condition).
necessary truth
see a priori.
needs
educational provision is often designed with the aim of meeting learners’ needs – their requirements or, even, wishes. However, this is a matter of perception and also of values: analysing what is seen to be in the interests of the learner and from these selecting what is seen as educationally important or valuable.
needs hierarchy
a theory of motivation developed by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) which postulates that humans have a range of needs which can be placed in rank order, from basic survival to complete fulfilment. Lower needs cease to motivate once satisfied, but higher needs cannot motivate until lower ones are met.
neoconservatism
a variant of modern conservatism which is noted for its activism and missionary zeal, seeking to promote and promulgate globally issues relating to individual freedom, democracy, the free market, and capitalist ideology generally. It is opposed to social liberalism and upholds what are termed traditional family values instead
neoliberalism
a modern development in liberalism, marked by its devotion to free markets, and critical of state planning, intervention, regulation, and control. It has also been influential in promoting market concepts within the public sector, introducing competition and public choice.
networking
process or activity of making strategic personal or professional connections with others.
new managerialism
a business approach adopted by elements in the public sector, noted by a customer-oriented focus, and a stress on efficiency, cost-effectiveness, competition, corporate planning, and performance evaluation. It is criticised widely, particularly for its administrative rather than educational emphasis.
new right
a strand of conservative thinking dating from the 1980s with a strong focus on neoliberalism matched by social conservatism. Key ideas are a strong market orientation, privatisation of public services, weakening of the welfare state, promotion of the family, and reactive policies on crime.
nihilism
literally a ‘belief in nothing’, it is applied to a range of views, most notably materialism which, in denying that mind or spirit exists, rejects immortality or an after-life. It is also applied to politically or socially destructive behaviour.
noetic
cognitive; apprehended by reason as opposed to empirical or sense experience.
nominalism
the theory that universals such as ‘goodness’ or ‘redness’ do not exist in reality but are merely grouping terms humans use. In modern times it has become associated with theories which stress that because our understanding of reality is constructed through language it remains beyond our direct experience.
nomothetic
proposing or prescribing a law (of nature).
non-cognitivism
the theory that moral judgments merely express a person’s attitudes and do not make any assertions about the properties of the object or action in question. It is also known as emotivism.
non-contact
applied to time in an educator’s working life which does not involve direct teaching or contact with learners. It is viewed as essential for effective planning, preparation, and assessment.
non-parametric
of statistical procedures, where there are no assumptions about the distribution of the sample set (see parametric)
non sequitur
a conclusion lacking any valid argument or one drawn illogically from what has gone before.
non-verbal
usually applied to elements of communication without words or symbols, such as gestures, movements, facial expressions, or postures. These are seen as vital aspects of relationship-building, and so of effective teaching, but often overlooked as inessential.
normal distribution
a frequency distribution which follows the normal pattern of a ‘bell-shaped curve’, so with most instances grouping around the mean, with a few at either end of the spectrum.
normalisation
in social theory, the way in which norms and standards are set by dominant groups, any deviation from which is then seen as abnormal, deviant, or problematic. It was also a term used in special education for the belief that the aim should be for all those involved to be encouraged and supported to lead as ‘normal’ a life as any other member of society.
normative
tending to establish a standard or rule; prescriptive.
norm-referenced
of an assessment, where an individual’s score indicates the relationship of that performance to the performance of the group in question. Thus one can get results in rank order – first, second, third, and so on, or can use terms such as above average or below average.
numeracy
the ability to be numerate, to manipulate numbers, to understand numerical relationships and processes. In the past it was referred to as arithmetic, one of the three Rs. With literacy, it is seen as an essential outcome of education for all.
nursery education
pre-school education for children from the age of 2 to 5. Free provision is available in parts of the UK for all 3 and 4 year olds, the amount of hours available varying from system to system. It is not compulsory. There are both state and private nursery schools.
nurture
a broad term which covers experience, environmental influence both social and material, and upbringing (see nature-nurture controversy). It is also used for the caring, supportive attitudes and behaviours expected of parents and others in relation to children and their developmental needs - physical, social, and emotional.
obedience
compliance with orders, instruction, and discipline. At one time this was a prime requirement of learners in educational institutions. It now tends to be couched in less stark terms, with more of a collegial, negotiated element, but is still an issue for organisational effectiveness.
objective test
any form of examination where the scoring is not dependent on the marker’s judgement or discretion. The choice and nature of the assessment items will have been subject to human involvement, however, and so the exercise is not as value-free and unproblematic as some may suppose.
objectives
the intended outcomes of teaching: statements of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of these desired goals. They tend to be more specific than aims, often involving the observable or the measurable. While seen as important for effective teaching, their mechanistic and slavish use has been criticised as leading to a rigid approach which limits the dynamic, exploratory nature of many learning experiences.
objectivism
a range of philosophical views which have in common the view that there is an external reality which can be directly experienced and perceived. In ethical theory, the view that values and duties hold or persist independently of our views of them (see subjectivism)
objectivity
the removal of personal opinion, judgement or bias in order to arrive at more precision. It is disputed how much this can be achieved in reality as even the framing of the situation in which objectivity is desired (such as a research project, or an assessment) is subject to subjective influence.
obligation
duty; what is required
off-task
referring to learners behaviour, where they lose focus on a relevant activity (usually set by the teacher) and engage in irrelevant action or conversation. ( see on-task)
old boy network
a generally pejorative term for the way in which the exclusive social and business relationships of former pupils of certain (usually independent) schools are used to preserve privilege and secure advantage.
old school tie
a generally pejorative term for the system of networking conducted by former pupils of certain (usually independent) schools to secure mutual personal, social and business advantage.
omnibus school
a term from early 20th century Scottish education for a comprehensive state secondary school which served as the common school for an area. Similar schools in England and Wales were known as multilateral schools.
on-task
referring to learners behaviour, where they remain focused on the specifics of a relevant activity, as set by the teacher (see off-task).
ontology
the branch of metaphysics which deals with the study of what exists; the assumptions about existence underlying a theory.
open learning
a form of learning which does not require admission qualifications, attendance at an institution, and may not lead to assessment or certification. Examples would include correspondence courses, distance learning and e-learning.
open plan
an approach to organisation associated with progressive education whereby individual classrooms are replaced by larger more flexible teaching areas, allowing for different groupings of learners and different roles for staff. Perceived benefits are countered by those who point for the need for much more extensive planning to co-ordinate activities and avoid situations where a music lesson, for example, occurs at the same time as an activity requiring silence. It is also a term used for office space, where staff are accommodated in larger communal areas as opposed to having individual offices. Unless staff are expected to be working in teams at all times, the advantages of this approach are not clear except in terms of efficiency of space and managerial surveillance.
open question
a question that is phrased so that more extended responses are required than a single word answer (see closed question; divergent; open-ended).
open-ended
of a question, not inviting a single, correct answer; divergent. Of a contract, not having a set time limit ( see divergent; open question).
operant conditioning
a term in behaviourism for the process of shaping behaviour by the systematic reinforcement (rewarding) of particular responses.
operation
a term from the work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980), referring to a mental process by which a learner can combine, separate, and transform information in a logical way. In the earlier stages of learning, Piaget uses the term preoperational to refer to the way in which such a learner is confused by appearance, struggles to decentre their thinking, and muddles issues about causation and consequences, owing to a nonlogical approach.
opportunity costs
the cost of a decision made, incurred to an organisation or programme, through foregoing alternative choices.
opting out
verbal noun: the process by which a school withdraws from local authority control to become independent or self-governing.
options
curriculum choices for students where subjects are not compulsory, or where a choice of topics or modules is offered within one subject area.
oracy
a term for the ability to speak, or skill in speaking. It became prominent as an attempt to stress its basic importance alongside literacy and numeracy.
oral
spoken. Some assessments take this form: for example, the viva voce for higher degrees such as PhD. It is not be confused with aural, which refers to hearing, and with related forms of assessment, particularly in foreign language teaching.
outdoor education
planned educational experiences which take place beyond an institutional setting, often involving resources and activities suited to setting, such as sports, crafts and camping, and so sometimes involving residential arrangements.
pace
the rate of the presentation of material for learning or the rate of study, speed of learning.
paired reading
an approach aimed at improving reading ability by matching readers together or by having a more able reader support a less able reader.
paracurriculum
a term used variously. Sometimes it is a synonym for the ‘hidden curriculum’ but more correctly it refers to the out-of-school experiences which contribute to a learner’s ability to benefit from schooling. It can also be part of a planned approach where the paracurriculum involves older students no longer in school but now in employment, within an overall structure of educational support. In some college contexts it refers to additional modules in personal skills or creative activity which are not central components of a course of study.
paradigm
a typical example or model of something; a conceptual framework underlying the theories and practice of a scientific subject or area of inquiry.
paradigm shift
a complete change in, or required in, one’s perception of a concept, or way of understanding a phenomenon.
paradox
an apparent contradiction which is true or contains elements of truth. Any situation which contains contradictory elements or qualities.
parametric
of statistical procedures, where the sample data under analysis is drawn from a population with a known form, the normal distribution (see non-parametric).
parents
key participants in state education, not least because they have the legal obligation to provide their children with education, through the state sector, the independent sector, or home schooling. The role of parents in schools has increased over past decades both through involvement in administration and management, and through increased choice, allowing parents more options regarding school placement for their offspring.
parish schools
in Scotland, under an Act of 1696, schools established by local landowners and administered by local church officials. The state system did not originate until 1872.
parrhesia
a term from ancient Greece meaning speaking freely or boldly. It was appropriated by Michel
Foucault (1926-1984) who made particular use of it in the idea of 'speaking truth to power', a
democratic means by which the dominant can be challenged.
partnership
a popular concept in modern governance, stressing co-operation between interested parties and agencies involved in educational provision.
passive learning
a term associated with instructivist or transmission approaches to teaching where learning is largely inactive and receptive. It is also a term sometimes used for incidental learning, where it occurs without the learner’s active, conscious effort.
pastoral
pertaining to support provided to pupils and students relating to personal, social, vocational, and curricular guidance.
pedagogy
the art, ‘science’, or principles and methods, of teaching. Some see it as having three key aspects: methodology, rationale, and reflection. In some contexts, it is used more broadly for the science of education, didactics, or upbringing.
peer assessment
evaluation carried out by one or more learners on the work or performance of another learner or group of learners. It is argued that the involvement of a fellow learner can result in better feedback or in a better response to such feedback, and also that the involvement of learners in this way in the assessment process aids their own understanding of the topic/task/material.
peer pressure
the social pressure felt to conform to the actions, behaviour, values, or attitudes of one’s peers. It can have positive or negative consequences, depending on the nature of the peer group, and the perspective taken.
per capita
a Latin term – literally ‘by heads’ – meaning, for each person, or in relation to people taken individually (see capitation).
perennialism
the view that the purpose of schooling is to inculcate in the young the fixed body of knowledge and social and cultural attitudes possessed by the community/society in question. It is an ultra-conservative, traditionalist outlook.
performance
how something is done, carried out, or executed. Assessment and evaluation of performance is prevalent through out the education system from that of learners, of teachers, as well as being conducted at departmental, institutional and government levels.
performance indicators
measures of effective performance, often statistical, related to the objectives or responsibilities of the post or institution under review. They are usually measures of output such as rates of attendance, exam results, and per capita costs of a school. They are often used comparatively to make judgements about relative worth, but have been criticised for an overly mechanistic, quantitative, and limited way of judging educational issues.
performance-related
usually used in relation to pay, where wage or salary is linked to measures of how well one has been judged to have fulfilled one’s role or met stated standards or targets. It is controversial in education for several reasons, most notably because of the difficulty of measuring teacher effectiveness, but also because the collegiate nature of a school makes it difficult to determine the precise contribution of a single individual.
performativity
a management system of accountability, where judgements and evaluations are made of the performance of an individual or group and their value or worth calculated in terms of the ratings awarded. A complex system of performance indicators, appraisal, targets, and monitoring is often involved. In education, it is often criticised as overplaying aspects of business management as opposed to professional issues and concerns. It is also questionable if some of the complex, but central, aspects of education can be readily translated into easily assessed indicators, with the result that it is said that the system ends up valuing what it can measure rather than measuring what it values.
peripatetic
descriptive of a teacher who is not employed in one institution but to teach in a number of establishments, travelling round from one to another. It is a common system in the employment of school music instructors, for example. The word is also sometimes used of a teacher who teaches in a number of different settings within an institution, without having a teaching area ‘of their own’.
personal construct
a central concept in the work of George Kelly (1905-1967), referring to the ways in which a person attempts to perceive and understand the physical and social world. Each of these personal constructs acts like a theory which is then adapted in the light of experience.
personality
a complex term from psychology which is resistant to simple definition as it is theory-dependent and contested. Generally, the term refers to the predictable and unique ways in which an individual responds to the environment. Some see personality as having a causal role in behaviour whereas others see it as merely a term for that accumulation of behaviours.
Peter principle
the principle that in an organisational hierarchy, members are promoted until they reach a level beyond their competence. In education, it would refer to those who do well at one level of management and are then further promoted until they reach a level at which they cannot cope. It is named after its originator Laurence Peter (1919-90).
phenomenology
a trend in 20th century philosophy which stresses the importance of human consciousness and its direct experience of the world. It was influential in the development of existentialist ideas. Educational research in this tradition would typically tend to focus on individuals’ own responses to and understandings of their experience more than on observations or tests of their actions or attitudes.
philosophy
the general study of the nature of reality, reason, and morality. The Greek roots of the word mean ‘love of wisdom’. The philosophy of education is concerned with studying the purpose of education and exploring its basic concepts.
phonics
in the teaching of reading, an approach which concentrates on the sounding out of letters, including individual sounds within words (see analytic phonics; synthetic phonics).
pilot study
a small-scale trial undertaken prior to a major study, or to test the effects of an intervention prior to its possible wider implementation. In education, it may involve a research study of a particular teaching innovation, curriculum materials, or of wider social interventions aimed at educational improvement.
plagiarism
the practice of using someone else’s work or ideas, unacknowledged, as if they were one’s own. The internet has vastly increased the potential for this form of deceit to be exercised but modern technology also offers greater potential for its detection.
planning
the formal process of making decisions about the future. At teacher level it involves preparing teaching programmes and associated resources and assessment. At institutional level it may involve decisions about such things as future objectives, priorities, budgeting, staffing, resources, and investment. Educational bodies of all sorts would typically plan around central issues of curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment, although other pressures would inevitably have to be faced also.
plasticity
a term in biology referring to the capacity of an organism to adapt to changes in its environment. In education, it is an important concept in child development as it stresses nurture as opposed to nature, that development is affected by environment and not determined solely by genes.
play
children, particularly in the early years, learn through play and so professional planning at these stages often concerns developing and extending play activities for educational purposes.
playgroups
organisations, often voluntary, set up to provide young children with opportunities to meet and play together prior to the nursery stage.
pluralism
belief or practice which reflects toleration of numerous distinct groups, beliefs, or practices in society, or which views such a situation as socially desirable. It is also a term used in policy analysis for an approach which encourages, or is based on, many individuals or groups having an equal say in policy making. It is contrasted with elitism.
policy
a complex term which can be summarised as an authoritative principle, plan or guide for a course of action, which embodies values. Policy can be understood as a product and as a process and need not be a text: unwritten policies are commonplace. In state education, policies and policy influence can emanate from many sources, the principal ones being at government levels – national and local – and at the level of institutional management.
policy community
in education, all the individuals and groups which have an input to policy creation and related activity (see leadership class, elite, pluralism)
policy ownership
the fact or process of being committed to a particular policy because one has been involved in its creation. This is seen as a powerful management and institutional goal and is reflected in the number and extent of policy consultation exercises. These, however, would be self-defeating if designed as cosmetic rituals, as many believe, merely giving the appearance of an open and inclusive approach.
policy refraction
the phenomenon by which policy changes in nature as it proceeds from the decision-making level to implementation. Often, there can be a wide divergence between original policy guidelines and how they actually work, or are implemented, in practice.
political correctness
the use of terms which aim not to exclude, marginalise, or insult any person or group suffering disadvantage or discrimination. On one side, it is sometimes criticised for oversensitivity or for creating clumsy and unnatural expressions, while on the other side it is criticised since underlying prejudiced attitudes may simply be masked by a façade of this inoffensive rhetoric.
politics
the science or art of government; the principles, opinions, or methods involved in the conduct of political affairs. As schooling is a political creation, it is necessarily subject to political debate, influence, and control.
polytechnic
an institution in the UK offering courses at degree level or below, often associated with vocational or technical subjects. Since 1992, it has gone out of use as these institutions were able to be renamed ‘universities’ from then.
positive discrimination
an approach to redressing inequalities of various sorts where extra support or favourable treatment is afforded to disadvantaged groups (see affirmative action).
positivism
a philosophical position which holds that all knowledge, including that of the social sciences, is what can be obtained using scientific methods – observation and experiment. It is thus linked to empiricism and opposed to metaphysics, religion, and idealism. It has been criticised as being too narrow in scope and in presenting a simplistic view of factual knowledge (see postpositivism).
postmodernism
not a single theory but rather a range of reactions to modernism and its assumptions. It rejects the idea of an all-embracing grand narrative, a single theory or principle that explains all human endeavour. It doubts the objectivity of science, for example, is sceptical of anything thought of as foundational, essential, or necessary, instead preferring to accept a variety of perspectives, none of which can be privileged. In the arts, the term refers more to an eclectic approach which rejects traditional forms and disciplines.
postpositivism
a reaction to positivism, holding instead that knowledge is provisional, and subject to revision and to perspective. It holds that objectivity is questionable but that knowledge is still possible not just in scientific terms but in hermeneutic, critical, moral, and other forms, particularly in the social sciences.
poststructuralism
related to postmodernism but focused on rejecting the idea that social systems have fixed underlying structures that determine their meaning. In literature, it stresses that texts have multiple meanings and ways of being understood and so interpretation can never be definitive. In social theory, it is particularly focused on how power relations are immanent in our constructions of the world and the way in which power shapes social practices and systems.
potential
ability which has not yet emerged or been demonstrated, but is assumed to be within an individual’s capability. It is a term used widely in education but is extremely difficult to ascertain or identify in any demonstrable way as it is inevitably based on perceptions which may be misplaced or erroneous (see underachievement).
power
controlling influence; a key concept in public policy, management and government.
practice
a term for what is actually done. In education, it normally refers to the actual work and behaviours of professionals. Teaching as a practice therefore refers to the ways in which it is typically conducted (see praxis).
pragmatism
a philosophical approach which determines the value of theories or beliefs in terms of the success of their practical application. More generally, it refers to any approach which seeks workable solutions rather than holding fast to any unbending position or beliefs.
praise
encouragement or commendation. It is seen as a key motivational factor but its application needs to be managed carefully for that to be maximised (see reinforcement; rewards)
praxis
a term dating back to Aristotle but now more commonly associated with Marxist or radical thinking such as that of Freire who sees it as, for the educator, reflective action united with critical theorising.
prediction
a statement about what will be observed or will take place, prior to the event. Its effects are multi-faceted; inaccurate or ill-judged predictions in educational contexts can have serious negative consequences (see self-fulfilling prophecy; Pygmalion effect; halo effect)
prejudice
a preconceived opinion or belief unsupported by evidence. The opinion may prove to be factually correct or incorrect, but the use of the word today tends to be associated with groundless discrimination and bias
premise
in logic, a statement in an argument from which the conclusion is drawn (see deduction; syllogism); more generally, any assertion or presupposition on which an argument or theory is based.
preoperational
a term from the work of Jean Piaget(1896–1980), referring to early nonlogical stages of learning, where the learner may still be confused by appearance, struggle to decentre their thinking, and muddle issues about causation and consequences (see concrete operational; formal operational; sensori-motor)
prescriptive
defining a standard, rule, or direction to be followed. Where an element of schooling or the curriculum is prescriptive, it means it has to be done or adhered to.
prescriptivism
a view of moral judgements which sees them not merely as expressions of liking or preference but that labelling an action as ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ also represents a form of command, indicating that the speaker endorses this judgement as having universal applicability. To say that murder is wrong includes a sense of the imperative ‘Do not murder’.
pressure group
a group of people who try to influence (education) policy in line with their particular interests and priorities. Typical techniques are the lobbying of powerful individuals and the use of the media to publicise and promote their views.
primacy-recency
the effect whereby individuals recall or prioritise issues that have been most recently experienced (recency) or those which were experienced initially (primacy).
primary school
an elementary school for children between the ages of about five and twelve.
primary source/data
original material deriving from a first-hand account, an eye-witness report, a participant’s evidence, or similar (see secondary source/data).
prior learning
what a learner knows beforehand. It is an important concept for teachers to be able to plan effectively. As it is a key factor in future success, it needs to be measured carefully if the particular impact of a teaching input is to be gauged.
private sector
a term for all educational establishments which are not part of the state system. It can also be used more generally for any organisation which is not within the state sector, so there can be private sector involvement in school meals for example if the local authority pays a private company to provide these as opposed to having a meals service of its own (see public sector).
private schools
educational institutions, independent of state control. They are almost always fee-paying. Although not run by the state, they may still be subject to state inspection and regulation to ensure legal compliance with broader issues of human rights and child safety.
privatisation
the process of, or belief in, transferring public services or utilities into private ownership and control.
privilege
advantage or preferential treatment.
probability
the chance of an occurrence; the likelihood that something will happen.
probation
a process or period which tests someone’s fitness for a particular post. It is most commonly used in relation to the early part of a teaching career before full membership of the profession is achieved.
problematic
difficult, debatable, uncertain, complex.
problem-based learning
an approach to teaching which requires functioning knowledge for success. It is common in professional education such as medicine or dentistry where the aim is not to test a student’s grasp of factual information but the student’s ability to apply knowledge in real-world settings.
problem-posing
an approach to teaching which stresses the role of asking and raising questions and difficult challenges as central to learning.
problem-solving
an approach which tries to ensure that applied knowledge, developing practical strategies, is central to the teaching and learning experience. Learners are required to use their knowledge, usually in a collaborative way, to work on situations and challenges which are presented to them.
profession
an occupation requiring specialised knowledge and associated training, that is marked further by being applied to the service of society, that values this above personal gain, and that has a self-regulatory body responsible for maintaining professional standards and discipline.
professional development
see continuous professional development
professionalism
the state or quality of being affiliated with a profession. In education, it is a loosely-used term which usually refers to ethical standards relating to practice, conduct, attitudes, and commitment. It can be used as a form of moral blackmail, however, if professionals are encouraged to comply with some development or initiative on the grounds that anything other would be unprofessional.
profiling
an approach to assessment which provides detailed judgements about a range of relevant characteristics, qualities, abilities
programme
a planned schedule of educational activities; a syllabus
progression
movement from one activity or experience to another in a sequenced, systematic way. It is seen as a key concept in curriculum planning to ensure that the planned programme has a sense of development from the simple to the complex or involves building on a prior experience.
progressivism
a movement in education most associated with John Dewey (1859-1952), emphasising real world problem-solving, active learning, collaboration, critical thinking, democratic principles. It replaced instructivism with a child-centred approach. It is viewed negatively by educational conservatives.
project
a long-term educational assignment, involving personal initiative. In primary education it is often synonymous with topic, a theme-based approach to teaching, allowing for a whole variety of different subject disciplines to be taught or experienced in an integrated way.
promotion
advancement in rank or position, such as from teacher to headteacher. It is also a term used sometimes for pupils being moved on a year group in advance of their age-group peers.
proximal praise
a technique in some approaches to behaviour management designed to generate compliance, where a positive comment on the behaviour of other (compliant) pupils nearby is used instead of a negative comment to the person whose behaviour is of concern. It is criticised by some as being morally dubious since the praise is not genuine but merely used as a strategic means to influence another person.
psychagogy
a term originally from ancient Greek philosophy and early Christian theology which refers to
'guiding the soul'. In psychotherapy it refers to attempts to influence a person's behaviour by
suggesting desirable life goals. More generally it means any similar approach aimed at
changing one's outlook, values, aims.
psychoanalysis
a method of treatment for various mental disorders. It was originally associated with Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).
psychology
the science of the nature, functions, and phenomena of mental activity.
psychometry
the measurement of mental ability. It has been highly controversial because of its involvement in IQ issues and selection (often on dubious grounds).
psychomotor
a term for the physical and muscular functioning of a human, or referring to the coordination of thinking and physical movement.
public school
the misleading term used in England for a fee-paying private school.
public sector
the term for all activity, organisations, and institutions which are run and funded by national or local government. This includes such aspects as the state health service, the education system, social services, and defence (see private sector).
pupil
any person taught by another. It has gone out of favour because of its connotations of inferiority and passivity. The term student has become more popular but seems inappropriate for the very young.
pupil-teacher ratio
the number of pupils in an institution divided by the number of teaching staff. A ratio of 30:1 would mean that for every 30 pupils there was one teacher. There have been recent moves to have this reduce significantly but academic opinion is divided on its merits and political opinion baulks at the increased costs involved. Many private schools market themselves on the basis of a low pupil-teacher ration, the implication being that personal attention and support for each individual pupil will be greater than would be the case in larger-sized classes.
pure research
systematic study and investigation undertaken to enhance knowledge and understanding but not specifically for any practical purpose (see action research; applied research).
Pygmalion effect
a term used for the phenomenon of the self-fulfilling prophecy whereby teacher expectations hugely influence student outcomes: learners are seen to achieve in line with what teachers expect them to achieve. The term derives from the play by George Bernard Shaw where a flower girl is trained so she can be passed off as a Duchess.
quadrivium
in the Middle Ages, the term used for the more advanced of the seven arts disciplines – arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy ( see trivium)
qualifications
official records of achievement that demonstrate successful completion of a course or the passing of examinations
qualitative
of research design, based on building a complex, holistic picture, using words, the reported views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting (see quantitative)
quality
an ill-defined term which normally refers to high standards. It is, however, a matter of judgement and one person’s views of high standards may not fit another. It is closely associated with business approaches such as quality control, quality assurance, total quality management, and quality improvement and so prone to the many problems inherent in importing private sector models to the public sector.
quango
an acronym derived from the term ‘quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisation’. It was the name used for a public body established and financed by government but which was still (ostensibly) independent of the government. Such organisations are now known as non-departmental government bodies, which acknowledges their role in the processes of government while clarifying that they do not belong to, or function under the authority of, any government department.
quantitative
of research design, based on theory testing using variables, measured with numbers, and analysed with statistical procedures, to determine if the predictive generalisations of the theory hold true (see qualitative).
questioning
increasingly recognised as a key element in effective teaching. Well planned questioning is not simply to test knowledge but can create knowledge and develop thinking itself. Similarly, encouraging a questioning attitude in learners can help to promote critical thinking, imagination, and creativity (see closed question; convergent; divergent; open question).
race
a grouping of humans with common features thought to be inherited genetically; ancestry; tribal or national origin.
racism
discrimination or prejudice on the grounds of race; belief in the superiority or inferiority of a person or group on the grounds of race. Racism can be conscious or unconscious and as with any form of discrimination can operate at individual, social, institutional, and systemic levels.
radical education
an approach which rejects traditional outlooks and attitudes and has as one of its aims thorough social and political reform (see progressivism).
randomised control trial
a standard research method involving the creation of two closely matching groups, for comparative purposes, only one of which is then subjected to the intervention which is being studied. It is a common approach in science but meets with problems and criticism when implemented in educational research, not least because of the difficulty of generalising from the unique circumstances of the trial.
rationale
a set of reasons or the logical basis for a course of action or a belief.
rationalism
(1) the practice or principle of basing opinions and actions on reason rather than on (religious) belief or emotions. (2) the philosophical theory that reason rather than experience is the foundation of certainty in knowledge.
rationality
the ability to think logically or sensibly; the state of being endowed with the capacity to reason.
raw score
in education, a test result or statistical data which has not been adjusted, or interpreted, in any way or had any contextual or mitigating factors taken into account.
reactionary
opposing social progress or reform.
readiness
in education, the state of being prepared to start school. Various tests and measures are in existence, designed to gauge the degree to which an individual will be able to cope in school and what support they may require.
realism
a term with broad application: in philosophy it generally refers to the belief that there is an objective world about which we can have objective knowledge. More commonly, it is a term used for an approach which accepts the world or situations as they are and judges the merits of ideas, plans, and actions on the extent to which they fit this viewpoint. Positively, this can be seen as a counter to the unfeasible and the idealistic but negatively it can be seen as being too resigned to things as they are and lacking the will to effect change or improvement.
realpolitik
practical politics: an approach which recognises issues of power and interest, rather than morals or ideals.
recidivism
the tendency to relapse, particularly into anti-social, harmful, or discredited behaviours or attitudes.
reciprocal reading
an approach designed to aid reading comprehension where teacher and reader, or pairs/groups of readers, explore a text together through four main strategies of questioning, clarifying, sequencing, and
predicting.
record keeping
an important aspect of schooling which involves keeping track of various issues relating to learners such as attendance, achievements, and progress. The rise in public accountability has led to considerable growth in record keeping and many critics compare negatively the increased time taken to manage this with its perceived value.
reductionism
the practice of simplifying an activity, concept, or issue (to the point where the object of attention becomes distorted or misrepresented).
reflection
a process of careful consideration. It is seen as vital for teachers in respect of improving their own practice, and increasingly for learners in respect of improving their learning or study skills. It, therefore, needs to be conducted in informed way to be of real value (see pedagogy; praxis; metacognition).
reflexivity
consciousness of one’s own assumptions, role, impact. It is a key idea in research because it emphasises the role of the researcher in influencing both the research design and results.
reform
the action or process of changing a system, institution, or practice with the intention of improving it.
regression
returning to a previous (less advanced or developed) state; the opposite of progress. In statistics, regression analysis is a technique used for establishing the nature of the relationship between variables.
rehearsal
mental preparation, especially by repetition.
reification
the treatment of a concept or idea as a concrete thing. In Marxism, it also refers to the treatment of an individual as a commodity in terms of labour.
reinforcement
a responsive action designed to increase the likely recurrence of a behaviour. It is a term in common use in approaches to behaviour management or modification. It is a form of conditioning and associated with behaviourist theories of learning.
relationship
social connection; the way in which two or more people feel and behave towards each other. As teaching is a social activity, relationships and their nature are key factors in its efficacy.
relativism
the theory, relevant in a number of different spheres, that conceptions of truth and moral values are not absolute but vary with individuals and their environment, thus rejecting the idea of a single ‘truth’ or simple ‘right’ and ‘wrong’. The term covers a range of philosophical positions.
relevance
the state or property of being connected to one’s experience, current interests, or needs. It is a key concept in the educational theory of John Dewey (1859 – 1952) which argues that to be successful, teaching needs to focus on what the learner actually needs and wants, what is deemed relevant. Dewey saw learning as an evolutionary process whereby humans develop better ways of adapting to and improving their environment. So what is to be learned must be seen as having this connection if it is to be engaged with.
reliability
an important concept in research studies referring to the consistency or accuracy or dependability of a measuring instrument. A test with high reliability should produce the same results if repeated in the same conditions (see validity).
remedial
pertaining to action designed to address some difficulty or lack of progress in learning. It is most often used in the context of children with specific learning difficulties.
remediation
any action or course of action designed to rectify some difficulty or lack of progress in learning.
replication
the repetition of an experiment or research study to check its validity or reliability; the extent to which research is judged to be repeatable.
reporting
giving a verbal or written statement, in education most usually in terms of assessing a learner’s progress, attainment, and achievements.
research
in education, systematic study and investigation undertaken to extend knowledge. Applied research involves using the results of research to affect practice. Much debate surrounds the nature and value of educational research as the nature of education is not readily amenable to the quantitative techniques of empirical science whereas qualitative research is sometimes viewed as limited, in terms of its generalisability.
residential
of a school, institution, programme, or course: providing or requiring accommodation.
resilience
the ability to recover readily from, or adjust easily to, adversity, misfortune, or setbacks of any
kind; buoyancy. It is viewed as being a key factor in success in education, particularly for
those from disadvanted backgrounds. The importance given to it has been criticised,
however, on the grounds that it seems to place the onus on the individual to adapt or cope,
rather than focusing on action to address the underlying disadvantage itself.
resources
in education, the stock or supply of materials (including staff) provided to support the effective achievement of various goals.
responsive planning
an approach to teaching where the teacher’s plans for the nature and sequence of activities is determined not in advance but by the actions of the learners, their interest as evident at the time (see contingent teaching).
restorative practice
an approach to behaviour management but also to personnel management generally which focuses on repairing relationships rather than on retribution or punishment in cases of misdemeanour or rule-breaking.
restricted code
a term in sociolinguistics which refers to a style of language marked by informal, predictable features and relying on contextual understanding and shared experience to convey meaning. It is contrasted with elaborated code.
revisionism
the practice of amending or countering previously held or established opinions or attitudes; the modification of socialist or Marxist beliefs, typically away from revolutionary principles.
rewards
any consequence a person experiences to their behaviour which tends to increase the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Used widely in education, they are not without problems, however. They may increase compliant superficial behaviour whereas the underlying understanding and commitment may be missing; people respond in different ways so some rewards may not work. Other consequences, not intended as rewards, may be seen as such: for example, sanctions may reward because of the attention value (see reinforcement).
rhetoric
the art of effective or persuasive speaking. Sometimes the term is used pejoratively where there is perceived gap between the words used and evident reality. For example political claims about education may be described as mere ‘rhetoric’ if they are not seen to be a fair representation of the real situation ( see spin).
right wing
descriptive of conservative or reactionary political views.
rights
benefits or other advantages to which an individual or group is entitled. There is a distinction between natural or human rights, to which all people are entitled, and civil rights to which people are entitled as citizens (of a particular state).
rigour
the quality of being extremely thorough and demanding. A term often used with approbation in evaluations of schools and their processes.
risk management
the process or procedures involved in assessing, and minimising or eliminating, the dangers – to assets, persons, and property - inherent in any aspect of an organization’s operation or proposed operations. It is most commonly referred to in education in relation to school trips, particularly of the outdoor adventure type, where there may be a risk of injury or even death to participants. The increased fear of litigation resulting from such cases has led to some professionals becoming reluctant to become involved in these activities.
rote learning
learning undertaken by habitual and mechanical repetition. It is generally viewed negatively as it does not promote understanding and is associated with draconian, authoritarian methods.
rules
in schooling, this usually refers to regulations governing expected standards of behaviour. In recent times, learners have been involved more in creating such rules – encouraging self-discipline and policy ownership – and rules have tended to be expressed in terms of behaviour expected, deemed to be more effective than those expressed in negative terms : “Do not…
sabbatical
leave from one’s normal work for a period of rest, study, or training.
sanctions
measures or penalties designed in response to poor pupil behaviour in school, or more generally as planned consequences for rule-breaking in any sphere, or designed to end rule-breaking and enforce compliance.
scaffolding
a term from the work of Lev Vygotsky (1896 -1934) which refers to the support given by a teacher, or more experienced learner, to enable another learner construct and develop new knowledge.
scepticism
a doubting or questioning mental attitude. It is also the name applied to any theory which holds that absolute knowledge is impossible.
schema
a term from the work of Jean Piaget (1891-1980) for a mental structure or representation that provides a person with a model for action or understanding. These are revised in the light of new experiences and resulting adaptation. (see also accommodation, assimilation, equilibration, operation).
schemes of work
an outdated term for syllabus plans.
school
an institution established for a number of purposes including educational provision.
school choice
a term for the process by which parents are enabled to select a school for their offspring as opposed to being assigned a school by the local authority.
school composition
the nature of a school’s role or intake, normally as defined by social class or similar socioeconomic and cultural measures. This has recently been identified as a highly significant factor in a number of key educational issues such ethos and pupil attainment.
school effectiveness
the term for an area of educational research which aims to study and identify aspects of schooling which make a difference, looking at such issues as ethos, management style, leadership, and school policies. One result has been the itemising of the characteristics of an effective school and this has itself been the subject of some dispute by those who feel issues to do with a school’s socioeconomic context, the nature of its intake, and school composition are given insufficient attention in such an approach.
school phobia
the condition of having an extreme fear of going to school. It can affect teachers as well as learners.
schooling
a term for the education system as it applies to the primary and secondary sectors. It is a worthwhile term as it creates a distinction from education itself which is one of the aims of schooling, a political creation (see deschooling).
scientific
usually applied to the research method which begins with observation, the development of a hypothesis, and the testing of the hypothesis through experiment. This process may then be repeated as desired or required.
screening
testing for, or identifying, certain characteristics in objects or people.
secondary education
schooling provided for those beyond primary school age. One distinguishing feature from the primary school is the increased use of subject specialists and of timetabling according to such. Attempts to move towards a more integrated, cross-curricular approach have largely been unsuccessful, although this can feature in the early stages of secondary.
secondary source/data
in research, any document or material which is the reporting of as first-hand account (or primary source)
secondment
the temporary transfer of an employed person to another position of employment, institution, or organisation. In education a typical example would be from a school to a local authority role or from a teaching role to a position within some educational organisation.
sectarianism
bigoted adherence to a factional viewpoint. As it is most commonly used in a religious context, the word has been more precisely defined as narrow-minded beliefs that lead to prejudice, discrimination, malice and ill-will towards members, or presumed members, of a religious denomination.
sector
in education, it refers to a distinct part or branch such as the primary sector or the independent sector. Education is itself a sector of government and is part of the public sector as opposed to the private sector.
secular
not pertaining to anything religious, spiritual or sacred; related to nonreligious subjects. While atheistic means denying the existence of God, secular simply means not dealing with such matters and is thus more neutral.
segregation
the separation of, or separate provision for, people of different gender, class, religious, racial, ethnic, or other groups, usually in the form of discrimination.
selection
the process by which learners are admitted to an educational institution on the basis of criteria or standards, usually in the form of an attainment test. It is widely practised in private schools but has not been in favour in the state system for some time, although elements of it have been re-introduced in England. Tertiary education tends to use it as the norm.
selective schools
educational establishments where entry is based on some standard (usually an academic test) which means that some applicants are accepted and others rejected.
self-concept
an idea of the self based on the beliefs one holds and the responses of others.
self-efficacy
confidence and belief in one’s capacity to perform and succeed. It is specific to context and not global.
self-esteem
confidence in one’s worth or abilities; self-respect.
self-evaluation
judging one’s own performance, whether at an individual, group, or institutional level. It is seen by many as a more effective approach for schools than that afforded by external inspection.
self-fulfilling prophecy
a prediction that causes or influences itself to become true; causing something to happen by believing it is true. In education, an example would be a belief that certain individuals will not perform well in school which may bring itself about, in fact, if relevant individuals believe it sufficiently as to affect their beliefs, motivation, and action (see Pygmalion effect).
self-governing
of a school in the state sector in England which is not under local authority control (see grant-maintained).
self-interest
regard for one’s own advantage or benefit (usually, with a disregard for others).
self-managed
see self-governing.
semantic
of, or pertaining to, meaning (of words or other symbols).
seminal
applied to something highly original or influencing future developments. In educational contexts, it may be used of an idea, concept, approach, or publication, for example.
sensori-motor
referring to the basic human capacities for sensory awareness and movement. It is the earliest stage in the genetic epistemology of Jean Piaget (1896-1980) where the child develops understanding of the connections between sense perception and actions (see concrete operational; formal operational; preoperational).
sequencing
a learning exercise involving rearranging muddled items into a logical order. In teaching, it refers to planning activities in a logical way to aid learning development.
setting
an approach to organising learners by ability in particular subject areas. Because it is dependent on perceived ability within a subject, a learner may be in a more able group in one area and in a less able group in another (see mixed ability, streaming, broad band).
sexism
prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination on the basis of sex, especially that encountered by women
single-sex education
schooling for one sex only such as an all-girls’ school, or a boys’ boarding school.
situated learning
a theory which stresses that learning most often occurs in authentic situations – settings and applications that really require that knowledge, and which typically involve social interaction and collaboration. Much classroom teaching and behaviour is too abstract and decontextualised to fit therefore.
situationism
a theory that human behaviour is determined by contextual circumstances rather than by personal qualities; a theory that views modern industrial society as necessarily oppressive and exploitative.
skill
a cognitive, social, or physical ability acquired, or developed, through practice.
slippage
the failure to meet a standard or deadline. It is also used of irrelevant activity during an educational task – for example, in a group discussion where conversation deviates from the set topic.
social background
a term used for the socioeconomic environment which pertains to a learner. It is still a key determinant of school performance.
social capital
a term from the work of Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002) which refers to the sum of resources held by a group or individual by virtue of possessing a network of (valuable) relationships.
social class
a grouping in society which share the same broad, economic, social, and cultural status. It is still hugely influential in educational outcomes (see middle class; working class)
social contract
an implicit (theoretical) agreement by members of society to cooperate for mutually beneficial purposes and to sacrifice certain elements of individual liberty in return for state protection. It features in the work of such theorists as Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau as a way of explaining and justifying political obligation, such as the duty to keep laws.
social construct(ion)
a concept, term, or category created by humans in society as a way of making sense of experience but which may not have objective reality or existence in nature (see socially constructed)
social constructivism
a term originating in the work of Lev Vygostky (1896-1934) for the process by which the child or learner comes to construct and understand experience through a reciprocal relationship with the social environment. Although sharing much of the constructivist thinking of Jean Piaget (1896-1980), it lays more stress on the social nature of the creation of knowledge and how culture affects perceptions.
social control
in education, the way schools are said to impose on learners values, attitudes, and behaviours which suit dominant political and cultural forces. Schools are thus seen as a means by which the social status quo is maintained.
social Darwinism
the theory that humans both as individuals and groups are subject to the same laws of natural selection as Darwin found in plants and animals. So, it is held that human development also demonstrates such phenomena as the ‘survival of the fittest’.
social democracy
a political theory which advocates, or a system of, socialist government achieved by democratic means rather than revolution.
social engineering
in education, the attempt to effect significant social change through manipulation of the education system and its processes. It is generally used in a pejorative sense, with implications of control and authoritarian methods.
social imaginary
the ways in which people understand their social existence: how they fit with others, how they
interact, and the expectations they hold; a common understanding that enables everyday
social practices. It may be largely implicit but may also include a normative element, of how
things ought to be.
social inclusion
a political goal whereby marginalised or disadvantaged groups come to be full participants in society in terms of employment, education, health, material wellbeing, citizenship and other social benefits.
social justice
fairness or equality especially in terms of state distribution of resources, opportunities, and benefits.
social mobility
the ability of an individual or group to move (upwards) in social status.
social pedagogy
a term more common in mainland Europe for the work of professionals dealing with the care
and welfare of children and youth. It is a holistic approach, supporting and fostering the
personal development, social education and overall welfare and care of the whole child (or,
sometimes, young adult). One of its principles is that it is possible, and desirable, to influence
social circumstances and positive social change through education.
social reconstructionism
a theory of education which sees social reform as a key goal, or which seeks to enable learners to become empowered to effect such change.
social science
the study of human society and social relationships, including such subjects as economics and politics.
social welfare
social services provided for citizens by government. It includes such things as national insurance, unemployment benefits, pensions, health care, disability payments.
social work
any of several professions providing services to those with a variety of needs in society, such as children, the poor, those with mental health problems, the elderly, and the vulnerable.
socialisation
the process whereby individuals come to act in a way which is acceptable to, and in tune with, their society. It is sometimes used in a less general sense referring to behaviour within institutions (such as schools) and professions (such as teaching).
socialism
belief in, or the fact of, collective ownership of the means of production and distribution in contrast with capitalist notions of private ownership, profit, and competition. The term encompasses a wide range of theories.
socially constructed
of an idea, concept, or term, indicating that it is not an empirically observable fact but simply a way of understanding the world as developed by human thought within a shared cultural perspective (see social construction).
society
social mode of life; the customs and organisation of a civilised nation.
sociobiology
the study of the biological, evolutionary, aspects of social behaviour in animals and humans.
sociolinguistics
the study of language in its social context, especially as affected by social class.
socioeconomic status
position of an individual or group in terms of their social and economic standing. It is a key factor in educational outcomes: the higher the status the better chance of good outcomes; the lower the status the greater chance of poorer outcomes.
sociology
science of the development and nature of human society.
solutions-oriented
of an approach to behaviour management, and relationships, which focuses on finding solutions to problems as opposed to punitive action.
special education
educational provision designed for those with particular needs beyond those possessed by the majority of learners of the same age. It may be aimed at meeting particular needs related to cognitive, physical, sensory, emotional, social or psychological issues. The word ‘special’ has lost favour and more neutral terms such as ‘additional support’ may be used.
special needs
see special education.
special schools
schools provided for learners with special educational needs.
specialist schools
schools which provide specialised teaching or support in a particular curriculum area, usually in addition to rather than instead of the general curriculum They are typically associated with sports, culture, and the arts – thus, dance schools or music schools.
spin
the presentation of material with a positive slant or in a manner designed to elicit a favourable public reception ( see rhetoric).
spiral curriculum
a term from the work of Jerome Bruner (b.1915) which refers to the way in which areas of learning are revisited systematically within a planned curriculum so that more detailed and more complex activity can be undertaken and related knowledge and skills develop.
staff development
any activity which promotes the personal or professional growth of teachers or other educational employees. Typical activities would be aimed at improving relevant skills and competences.
standard deviation
in statistics, a measure of the variability of the distribution about a mean. A small standard deviation figure would indicate that most results cluster about the mean, whereas a higher score would indicate a much wider deviation.
standards
the quality of some aspect of education such as children’s learning, or teaching.
state
organised political community under one government; civil government.
statistics
numerical facts systematically collected, or the science of such. They do not ‘tell’ anyone anything per se: it is how they are interpreted that is key.
Steiner schools
private schools run according to the philosophical principles of Rudolph Steiner (1861-1925). His approach, also called the Waldorf method, lays emphasis on feelings and values and on artistic and practical activities. There is also a strong spiritual, transcendental element to his thinking (see anthroposophy).
stereotype
a fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing. It can often indicate underlying prejudice or unfairness.
stimulus-response
a concept central to behaviourist theories of learning which assumes that behaviour occurs in response to stimuli and that all learning can be understood within this basic model.
strategic learning
a utilitarian approach to study where attention is only paid to aspects viewed to be important for extrinsic reasons such as exams (see deep learning, surface learning).
streaming
a system of organising learners at school whereby some test of ability is applied which determines the classes learners will be members of for all subjects even although the test may only have taken note of performance in language and numeracy. Thus the A class will remain together for teaching across the school and not just in English and Maths. (see setting, mixed ability).
stress
a response, which may have physical as well as psychological manifestations, to threatening or overly demanding situations. For learners, it can be a major barrier in learning; for teachers and other professionals both a limit to their effectiveness and a major challenge to their wellbeing.
structuralism
an intellectual movement which flourished in the 20th century in a range of domains such as linguistics, literary theory, and sociology. The key linking concept is that understanding phenomena involves understanding their place within the overall structures of which they are a part (social, political, economic, textual, for example).
students
a term deemed to be less problematic than pupils in that it is less heavily influenced by power relations. It is commonly used now for learners at secondary school as opposed to being only used for those at the tertiary level. It is less obviously relevant to primary-aged children for whom the word ’pupils’ tends to remain. ‘Student’ is related to the verb ‘to study’ which may make its appropriateness questionable in some cases.
subject-centred
of a curriculum, institution, or educational approach which is structured according to, or dependent on, subject departments or subject divisions. It is often used pejoratively by those who favour a more integrated approach.
subjectivism
the name given to a range of theories that hold, essentially, that moral judgements are expressions of personal taste (see objectivism).
subjectivity
that which represents, or the fact of demonstrating, a personal or individual view, judgement, or perspective (see objectivity).
subjects
coherent bodies of knowledge (see disciplines, domains, forms of knowledge). Educational provision, particularly beyond the primary sector, has traditionally been organised around the content of subject areas : mathematics, science, language, etc. (see subject-centred).
sufficient condition
something whose existence or presence is enough to guarantee that of another. A necessary condition must be in place for the thing in question to be, but is not enough to guarantee it. For example, sitting an exam may be a necessary condition for passing it but clearly is not a sufficient condition.
summative assessment
assessment usually conducted at the end of a unit or course of study which evaluates what has been achieved, often represented in a mark or grade (see formative).
summer school
a programme of study offered by colleges/universities in the summer (vacation). It can take the form of an induction course, a supplementary course, as remediation, a leisure pursuit, or as provision for part-time students.
superego
a term from Freudian psychoanalysis for the part of the mind that acts as a self-critical conscience, reflecting learned standards or mores (see id, ego).
surface learning
superficial knowledge or understanding, unlikely to be retained for long (see deep learning).
sustainable
able to be maintained without depletion. In education, it is used of numerous issues such as sustainable assessment, meaning an approach to evaluation which a learner can continue without always having a teacher present.
SWOT analysis
an approach by an organisation – such as a school or department – to self-evaluation which seeks to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (hence the acronym).
syllabus
the subjects or content of a course of study (see curriculum).
syllogism
a form of deductive reasoning where a conclusion is necessarily drawn from two premises or propositions. For example, All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal.
symbolic interactionism
a complex theory in social psychology that stresses the symbolic nature of human interaction and the role of language in the formation of mind, self, and society. Social reality and human behaviour are understood as symbolic, communicated, and subjective. It was developed by G.H.Mead (1863-1931).
synchronic
dealing with (study or analysis of) a phenomenon as it exists at one point in time (see diachronic).
syndicate
a term used for smaller groups organised within a tutorial or seminar group.
syndrome
a term used rather loosely but properly referring to the regular occurrence of a group of symptoms such that a condition can be identified. The term is also sometimes used to describe characteristic behaviour or attitudes, such as ‘Monday morning’ syndrome to refer to typical feelings associated with the start of the working week.
synergy
combined or co-operative action such that the joint result is more than the sum of what individuals could have achieved separately.
synthesis
the process of combining elements in a unified whole. It is also a term from the philosophy of Georg Hegel (1770-1831) in his theory of the dialectical development of human understanding whereby ‘thesis’ and its opposite ‘antithesis’ become resolved in the higher rational state of ‘synthesis’.
synthetic
see analytic/synthetic.
synthetic phonics
a method of teaching reading through blending sounds from individual letters, building these together to form complete words (see analytic phonics).
systematic review
a form of research which attempts to analyse existing research evidence within a given field with a view to establishing some form of generalisation. It is common in medicine and the sciences but more controversial in education because of the difficulty of finding research which has been conducted in matching or similar contexts.
systemic
relating to a whole system, as opposed to one sector or aspect. Systemic racism, for example, would refer to problems in the education system as a whole rather than simply isolated or distinct instances.
tabula rasa
a Latin term meaning ‘blank slate’ (‘scraped tablet’, literally), referring to the mind, unaffected by experience. It comes from the theories of John Locke who held that learning came from experience, that the child’s mind was essentially empty until affected by experience (see empiricism). It is associated with the idea of the mind as passively receptive to learning, with limited reference to its active capacity (see passive learning, instructivism, transmission, banking model).
talented
see gifted.
target
goal or aim, as applicable to a number of educational contexts. It may be to do with teaching, learning or resource or financial management, for example. They are often used in assessment systems or performance management.
task
a piece of work or assignment expected to be tackled by a learner.
taxonomy
the science or principles of classification; ordered division into groups or categories ( see Bloom’s taxonomy).
teacher education
policies, procedures, and programmes designed to assist teachers in the development of appropriate professional knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours. Initial teacher education refers to programmes for student teachers prior to full registration and employment. Ongoing development for qualified professionals is normally referred to as continuous professional development.
teacher training
a term, now out of favour, for initial teacher education.
teacher
one who is employed in, or who fulfils, a teaching role.
teaching
any of a host of activities which have in common the structuring of a situation to enable learning to take place.
team
in education, a group of individuals associated in some sort of joint action. It may be on a permanent basis or set up for some specific time and purpose.
team-building
activity designed to strengthen group cohesion and effectiveness.
team teaching
an approach to teaching where two or more teachers combine to teach a class or group jointly. It is similar to co-operative teaching but differs in that team teaching involves a unified, shared approach as opposed to one teacher leading.
technical education
a subject discipline which covers such areas as craft and design, graphic design, and technology. It traditionally dealt with such topics as woodwork, metalwork, and mechanics.
technicism
a term with a number of meanings and uses but most commonly used in educational contexts pejoratively, to refer to learning or success defined by the mechanistic achievement of targets, or belief in such an approach, as opposed to fuller knowledge or deeper understanding.
technocracy
government or management by technical experts or scientists. In education, it often refers to management of the system or an institution which prioritises economic, technical, or bureaucratic efficiency over educational ideals.
teleology
theory that phenomena can be best explained in terms of purpose, intention, or design.
tertiary education
the stage of education after (compulsory) secondary schooling. The term covers varied provision including colleges and universities.
test
any activity used as a means of evaluating abilities, aptitudes, skills, knowledge, or performance. It can be formal – as in an examination – or more informal.
theme
in education, this is most commonly used in the sense of a unifying idea in a programme of study, such as a cross-curricular topic.
theory
a coherent group of propositions used as principles for the explanation of some phenomenon. It is stronger than a hypothesis which is a conjecture still to be tested whereas a theory has more weight in terms of its credibility.
thesis
an extended academic essay written to fulfil the requirements of a higher degree. More generally, it is a term used for a position taken by an author on a topic, which is promoted or explored in the text.
think tank
an organisation or body providing (expert) advice and ideas to government.
three Rs
reading, writing, and arithmetic – seen traditionally as central concerns of the curriculum (see basics). Reckoning - counting - may well be the original third 'r', as opposed to arithmetic.
threshold concept
a core concept whose understanding transforms perception in a given subject discipline and
without which significant further progress cannot be made. These concepts may well be
'troublesome' in the sense of being counter-intuitive.
time management
any of a number of approaches which individuals, groups, or organisations employ or practise designed to make best use of time, through such things as prioritising, streamlining activities, or developing effective short-cuts. It aims to avoid duplication and wasted effort, and to reduce effects of workload and stress.
timetable
a catalogue or schedule which indicates the programme of classes or activities for learners and staff. It may be set for a full academic year or alter termly, or even more regularly.
toddlers
young children at the stage of beginning walking. Toddlers’ groups usually are for 2 year-olds.
tokenism
any insincere attempt to meet with regulations or policy requirements, marked by superficial or limited compliance, without any commitment. There is normally enough done to avoid any sanctions, but not enough to have much effect. It is most commonly used in relation to equal opportunities in employment. In education, it can relate to a range of other contexts, such as tokenism relating to consultation, learner-centredness, school councils, or the purchase and use of textbooks to meet policies on racial and gender equality.
top-down
descriptive of a management approach where ideas, decisions or policy originate at the highest level of institutional hierarchy and are then communicated to other staff without further input.
topic
subject-matter which is used as a focus for learning. In primary schools it is often the unifying theme for a range of disparate curricular activities.
total curriculum
all of the experiences, planned and unplanned, which a learner encounters in an educational institution.
totalitarianism
a form of government which brooks no opposition and demands subservience of the individual to the state.
trace decay
a concept in the psychology of forgetting which suggests that memory (of fact or of a skill) may fade from the mind if not actively used over time.
tracking
a system intended to follow and plot the progress of learners and so identify areas of strength, weakness or where action may be deemed appropriate. In the USA it refers to setting.
trade union
an organised association of workers in a trade, sector, or profession formed for the protection and advancement of their common interests. Teacher unions are sometimes referred to as ‘professional organisations’ to distinguish them from unions’ historical link with more manual or industrial workers.
traditionalism
any theory or outlook which favours respect for, and devotion to, past customs or practice. In education, it is most often associated with views which favour such things as strong discipline, a focus on basic literacy and numeracy, and an aversion to child-centred or progressive approaches.
training
a form of learning often distinguished by being for a particular skill or set of skills. It can be marked by narrowness and a lack of learner reflection and so it is often viewed negatively compared to terms such as learning or education (see instruction).
transcendental
in philosophy, beyond experience. It is associated with the Kantian idea of a priori elements which condition human knowledge, which make it possible to understand experience in the first place.
transcendentalism
any one of a number of philosophical theories which hold that the principles of reality are to be found in the study of thought, emphasizing the intuitive and the spiritual above the empirical.
transference
in psychoanalysis, the shift of emotions or feelings from one person or object to another. Thus, attachment to or rejection of a parent, may be transferred to reaction to a teacher.
transition
a move from one educational sector to another such as that from primary school to secondary school. Such changes are often seen as sources of difficulty and disruption for learners.
transmission
used to describe an approach to teaching which is marked by the direct communication of the teaching material from active teacher to passive learner (see banking model; instructivism).
triangulation
a metaphor from surveying, used to describe a research approach which seeks to use several methods in an attempt to improve the validity and reliability of its findings on a specific issue.
trivium
in the Middle Ages, the lower division of the seven liberal arts: rhetoric, grammar, and logic (see quadrivium).
truancy
absence (typically from school) without leave. Condoned absence is a form of truancy where the parent or caregiver approves or connives at the absenteeism. As school attendance is compulsory, truancy can lead to legal consequences.
truth
fact; reality; accuracy. A common term but a very contested philosophical concept ( see epistemology; knowledge).
Type I and Type II errors
in educational research, a Type I error is the rejection of a true hypothesis, while a Type II errors is the acceptance of a false hypothesis.
underachievement
a term used widely but imprecisely for cases of low attainment or for performance which is deemed to be less than anticipated should be the case in the circumstances. Identifying such expected performance is hugely questionable. The term also needs to be used carefully to take account of the socioeconomic, cultural, and personal issues which may be significant factors (see potential).
underclass
a term used for the most extremely disadvantaged social stratum.
understanding
a complex term which is normally used to signify a depth of knowledge or learning which includes a perception of the nature or cause or use or significance of the object of learning. It goes beyond awareness or recognition, implying a much fuller appreciation of meaning.
unit
a coherent body of teaching/learning material usually focused on one specific topic or subject.
use theory
the idea, originating in behaviourism, that responses, functions, or associations that are practised, exercised or rehearsed will be strengthened compared to those unused.
utilitarianism
a moral theory, now having several variants, which holds that the rightness of an action depends on its consequences, specifically its contribution to increasing happiness, with the ultimate aim being the greatest happiness of the greatest number (see teleology, consequentialism, deontology).
unit
a single, discrete block in a programme of study which may have associated assessment and certification. Several units may comprise a module or course.
university
tertiary education institution, involved with advanced learning in numerous disciplines, conferring degrees in various faculties.
usefulness
a term used for curriculum content or courses which are deemed to have practical value or to meet certain needs. However, such judgements are notoriously subjective, dependent on values which may not be universally shared (see instrumentalism).
validity
a key term in educational research which relates to the extent to which the findings are soundly based and well-grounded in the evidence; empirical validity is the extent to which the methods employed actually test and examine what is purported to be tested (see ecological validity; reliability).
value added
a term used, particularly in relation to the performance of schools, for a measurable impact on pupil attainment which is more than that statistically expected. In other words, it appears that the school has improved its learners’ levels of attainment more than that of other schools. However, without very detailed knowledge of the nature of school composition - the socioeconomic background of learners - and their out-of-school experiences, it is by no means easy to attribute causes for such phenomena.
values
principled preferences; standards; judgement of what things are good, valuable, important (in life).
variable
a factor or condition that is subject to change, especially one that is allowed to change in an educational research study to test a hypothesis.
variance
in statistics, the square of the standard deviation.
verbal reasoning
the ability to understand and use words and concepts logically. It is a key aspect of intelligence testing (see intelligence quotient).
verifiability
the capacity of being verified, checked as accurate, true, or authentic. It is a key principle of logical positivism which held that a statement was only meaningful if it could be empirically verified (checked) or if it was tautological (see falsifiable)
verification
the process or fact of being established as authentic, accurate, or true.
vertical
an approach to school management which organises procedures and processes up through pupil year groups rather than across them. Thus, a teacher of pastoral care in a vertical arrangement would deal with sets of learners from all age groups rather than one age group (see horizontal).
virtual communities
a group of people who primarily interact by communication media rather than face-to-face.
virtual learning environment (VLE)
an interactive computer software system designed to support teaching and learning. It is usually accessed through the Internet and provides a collection of different tools for those involved.
virtue ethics
an approach to moral theory that stresses the key role of character as opposed to rules and consequences. It dates back to Aristotle who held that the acquisition of virtue is the proper goal of human conduct, the overall aim being to achieve a meaningful life.
viva voce
an oral examination, most commonly associated with degrees at doctoral level. It is often shortened to viva.
vocational
relating or pertaining to a vocation or occupation. Vocational aspects of the curriculum are those with a particular application to the world of work.
voluntary school
in England, a school in which a charity, religious, or faith group has a particular governing role in addition to that of the local authority.
weighting
assigning relative importance to each of a group of variables. For example, in a subject area one element may be assigned greater importance than others. In an exam, weighting may mean that one (valued) part of the exam is given more marks than others. In an evaluation, weighting may be given to certain issues above others, for example, in interview procedures, or in entrance requirements.
welfare
the happiness, contentment, and general wellbeing of an individual. Schools are now expected to play a much larger role not simply in issues of personal, social, and emotional welfare but also in wider issues of social welfare such as sexual health, drugs, obesity, diet.
wellbeing
the state of being happy, healthy, and contented. It has recently become a key student
outcome in many education systems and can be linked loosely to Aristotle's concept of
eudaimonia. Some critics have questioned if it is used with sufficient regard to social,
cultural, or ethnic diversity. It certainly seems unlikely that one definition can be found to cover
the range of possible human values it might represent.
whole child
a term used for the educational concern with the personal, emotional and social wellbeing of children and young people as opposed to merely academic concerns.
whole class teaching
a teaching style where all learners in a class are taught together as a single group by the one teacher. It is often associated with instructivist approaches but need not be conducted in such a style.
whole school
relating to the school at institutional level as opposed to classroom or departmental levels. It may be used of policies or approaches.
work experience
arrangements whereby learners spend a period of time in a workplace. The placement may be related to the course being followed, or to learners’ interests, or may simply be organized to provide some experience of the world of work.
workcard
an individual text issued to give learners some instructions or material relating to a task to be attempted
workload
what is demanded of an individual in the performance of their role. A teacher’s workload would include planning, preparation, teaching, and assessment as well as many other administrative duties including recording and reporting. A learner’s workload would relate to study, attendance at classes, completion of assignments, and homework. Excessive workload is a major factor in stress.
worksheet
a page given to learners detailing, or providing, some activity to be undertaken. The overuse of such an approach is widely criticised partly because of claims that the learner may merely engage in the activities without understanding or thinking being developed. The overuse also leads to all of the problems associated with lack of variation in the classroom. Sometimes worksheets are in use because of shortage of other suitable resources or because of budget concerns.
working class
the social grouping originally associated with manual labour but now used in more subtle ways, reflecting social divisions in terms of employment, economic standing, heredity, culture, and other distinctions.
youth training
work-based training for unemployed school leavers
zero budgeting
a budgeting system in educational management where the allocation of funds is assessed anew, with no assumptions made that previous principles or arrangements will apply, and so all existing activities are judged in the same way as new proposals.
zone of proximal development
a term from the work of Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) for the gap between what a learner (a child) can accomplish independently and what they can accomplish when they are interacting with others who are more competent.